The Rise and Fall of Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Rise of Primo de Rivera
In 1923, two distinct movements converged in Spain. In Barcelona, the Juntas plotted with Primo de Rivera to forcibly dissolve the courts. Meanwhile, in Madrid, the African army voiced its aspirations regarding Morocco. Miguel Primo de Rivera, connected to the latter group, became the liaison between the two and the leader of the impending uprising. He requested full powers to combat terrorism in Barcelona.
Primo de Rivera’s Coup
Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia and from a military family, was seen as the “iron surgeon” that the Regenerationists believed Spain needed. With the support of Alfonso XIII, he aimed to modernize the country. His mandate focused on resolving the Moroccan issue, promoting public works, and ensuring public order, albeit at the expense of freedoms. On September 13, 1923, he staged a bloodless coup in Barcelona, swiftly dominating the Catalan capital. The hesitant government failed to react, allowing Alfonso XIII to endorse the rebellious general and entrust him with governance. Within three days, Spain transitioned from a parliamentary monarchy to an authoritarian regime, marking a departure from the Cánovas system.
The Dictatorship
Primo de Rivera’s policy focused on “ending the old order.” A royal decree established a governing board chaired by him, consolidating power. The king approved all decisions advised by a board of military officials. The administration’s function rested with the army. Constitutional guarantees were suspended, civil governors deposed, courts dissolved, and political parties harassed. Municipalities and county councils were restructured. A decree on public incompatibilities prevented former ministers and officials from involvement with state-contracted companies.
The Patriotic Union
Two new structures emerged: government representatives and municipal statutes. The Patriotic Union (UP), a non-political organization, aimed to control local governance. Composed of “patriots” opposed to disorder, it lacked a defined ideology. The UP reflected the dictator’s populist authoritarianism.
The Moroccan Question
Primo de Rivera’s resolution of the Moroccan conflict marked his most significant success. After consultations with Franco and General Sanjurjo, he dedicated resources to ending the conflict. A modernized army, in conjunction with French forces, landed at Alhucemas Bay, combining land, sea, and air power. After weeks of intense fighting, Abd-el-Krim surrendered to the French. This victory boosted Primo de Rivera’s political and popular standing.
Shifting Political Landscape
In 1925, the directory transitioned to a civilian government, incorporating figures like Martínez Anido and Calvo Sotelo. The constitution remained suspended, and decrees continued to be the primary form of legislation. Spain benefited from a booming European economy. Public works and services flourished, and with the support of the Socialist Party (PSOE) and the UGT, a corporatist structure for labor relations was established. A major fiscal reform introduced income tax.
Opposition and Downfall
Several factors contributed to the dictatorship’s downfall:
- The Catalan Question: Persecution of the Catalan language, government intervention in the Barcelona Bar Association, and restrictions on Catalan in liturgical practices fueled resentment.
- Labor Movement: The regime struggled to control the labor movement. The PSOE, supported by the Communist Party and the CNT, began advocating for a republic.
- Intellectuals and the Army: Intellectuals opposed the regime from the outset, protesting Unamuno’s dismissal and banishment. Soldiers resented favoritism towards the Moroccan army. The attack on the artillery corps hastened the regime’s collapse.
The Pact of San Sebastian
The Pact of San Sebastian united regionalists, constitutionalists, historical republicans, and the PSOE. Two lines of action emerged: a revolutionary approach, exemplified by the failed Jaca uprising, and media campaigns and rallies. A revolutionary committee was formed, but the CNT and other labor forces were notably absent. A manifesto called for the monarchy’s overthrow. A staggered election process, culminating in a Constituent Cortes, began with municipal elections on April 12, 1931, effectively serving as a referendum on the monarchy. The election of republican councilors sealed Alfonso XIII’s fate, leading to widespread demonstrations for a republic.