The Rise and Fall of Juan Manuel de Rosas
First Government (1829-1832)
Juan Manuel de Rosas was proclaimed governor of Buenos Aires on December 8, 1829, under the title of “Restorer of the Laws and Institutions.” This act granted him extraordinary powers, a practice previously used with governors Sarratea and Rodriguez in 1820 and Viamonte in recent years. While not entirely democratic, it wasn’t exceptional.
The Civil War and the Federal Pact
Amidst the backdrop of the civil war, Rosas sent a commission to mediate between Paz and Quiroga, which ultimately failed. Paz’s victory led to the invasion of Quiroga’s allied provinces, establishing a Unitarian League. In response, Rosas, along with Estanislao López, initiated the Federal Pact between Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, and Entre Ríos in January 1831. This pact, later referenced in the Argentine Constitution, aimed to counter the spread of Unitarianism. Corrientes joined later, though Rosas remained firm on Buenos Aires’ control over customs revenue.
Military Campaigns and Political Instability
Military operations commenced in early 1831, with Juan Ramón Balcarce in nominal command. Colonel Pedernera’s defeat at the Battle of Fraile Muerto prompted Paz to take charge of the Eastern Front. Quiroga, with limited support from Rosas, trained his forces and advanced south. Paz’s capture in May 1831 brought a significant shift, leading to Lamadrid’s defeat at the Battle of The Citadel and the end of the Unitarian League. The remaining provinces subsequently adhered to the Federal Pact.
The Triumvirate and the Postponement of Constitutional Organization
The country became divided into three spheres of influence: Cuyo and the Northwest under Facundo, Cordoba and the coastline under Lopez, and Buenos Aires under Rosas. This triumvirate ruled for a few years, with strained relations. While representatives from various provinces advocated for constitutional organization, Rosas prioritized provincial organization, delaying the constitution for two decades.
Rose’s First Administration
Rosas’ first government was characterized by order, not despotism. His administration was progressive, marked by the founding of towns, reforms to the Commercial Code and military discipline, and peace treaties with indigenous groups. However, the English invasion of the Falkland Islands, a long-standing point of contention, cast a shadow. Some historians suggest Rosas offered the islands to England to settle a debt, a claim that remains unverified.
Second Government (1835-1852)
The assassination of Facundo Quiroga, sent by Rosas to mediate a conflict, triggered Maza’s resignation and a return to instability. The legislature recalled Rosas, granting him the “sum of public power” on April 13, 1835. This consolidated his authority and eliminated potential rivals within the Federalist party.
The Sum of Public Power and the Consolidation of Power
The sum of public power came with the commitment to preserve Catholicism, uphold the Federation, and exercise power for as long as deemed necessary. Rosas established the Apostolic Restoration Party, imposed federalist principles, and forged alliances with provincial leaders, gaining control over trade and foreign affairs. He dissolved the legislature and courts, solidifying his exceptional mandate.
The Plebiscite and the Reign of Terror
Rosas’ appointment was confirmed through a plebiscite, with an overwhelming majority in favor. However, women and children were excluded from voting. Esteban Echeverría’s “El Matadero” provides a glimpse into this era, portraying the brutality attributed to Rosas and his followers. Rosas ordered the arrest and execution of Santos Perez and Reynafé, establishing a national criminal court in Buenos Aires, albeit through extralegal means.
Suppression of Opposition and the Federalist Symbolism
Rosas purged opponents from public office, imposed the motto “Federation or Death,” and mandated the use of the red ribbon, a symbol of Federalism. The Unitarian’s use of light blue and white led Rosas’ forces to adopt a darker blue, influencing the eventual color of the Argentine flag.
Internal and External Conflicts
Rosas’ second term was marked by internal and external conflicts. Uprisings in Corrientes and conspiracies in Buenos Aires were brutally suppressed. Lavalle’s invasion from Uruguay, supported by the French, was defeated. In the north, a coalition led by Avellaneda was crushed. External conflicts arose with France over taxes imposed on goods passing through Montevideo and with England over unpaid debts and the blockade of the Rio de la Plata. The Anglo-French blockade was eventually lifted after negotiations.
Conclusion
Juan Manuel de Rosas’ rule was a complex and controversial period in Argentine history. His strongman tactics and suppression of opposition earned him the title of “dictator.” However, he also brought a degree of stability and order to a fractured nation. His legacy continues to be debated, with some viewing him as a defender of federalism and others as a tyrannical despot.
The Crisis of the Spanish Monarchy and its Impact on America
Causes of the Crisis
- Spain’s subordination to France under Philip V weakened its autonomy.
- The war against England depleted Spain’s resources and control over its colonies.
- Ineffective colonial management hindered economic growth.
- Napoleon’s invasion of Spain in 1808 and the forced abdication of the Spanish monarchs created a power vacuum.
Stages of the Crisis
- 1790-1808: Franco-Spanish alliance against England.
- 1808-1814: French invasion of Spain, Napoleonic rule, and the rise of liberal movements.
- 1814-onward: Ferdinand VII’s absolutist rule and the independence movements in South America.
Impact on America
- Formation of governing juntas in Spanish American cities.
- The establishment of the Cortes of Cádiz and the debate over representation for American colonies.
- The rise of nationalism and the desire for political and economic autonomy.
Abascal’s Policy and the Reaction to Early 19th-Century Rebellions
Viceroy José Fernando de Abascal adopted a staunchly conservative stance, opposing liberalism and supporting the Spanish crown. He strengthened the Viceroyalty of Peru militarily and financially, making it a bastion of royalist power. Abascal actively suppressed conspiracies and rebellions in Peru and neighboring regions, including the campaigns in Quito, Chile, and Upper Peru. His actions, while maintaining royalist control in the short term, ultimately fueled nationalist sentiment and contributed to the growing desire for independence.
Internal and External Factors Influencing Peruvian Independence
External Factors
- Political: The independence of the United States and the French Revolution provided inspiration and demonstrated the feasibility of breaking away from colonial rule.
- Economic: The decline of Spanish trade and the rise of free trade weakened Spain’s economic control over its colonies.
- Intellectual: The Enlightenment and the dissemination of liberal ideas through publications like the Encyclopedia fostered a desire for individual freedom and self-governance.
Internal Factors
- Social and economic inequalities: The Creole elite resented their subordinate status to Spanish-born officials and sought greater control over the economy.
- Ineffective colonial administration: Corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency fueled discontent among the population.
- Rise of nationalist sentiment: The desire for self-determination and a distinct Peruvian identity grew stronger, particularly among the Creole intelligentsia.
- Influence of indigenous rebellions: Uprisings like the Tupac Amaru II rebellion exposed the fragility of Spanish rule and inspired resistance.