The Rise and Fall of Islamic Civilization: From Mecca to Al-Andalus
1. The Birth and Expansion of Islam
Islamic civilization is inseparable from the religion that gives it its name: Islam. This religion has its origin in the Arabian Peninsula in the early 7th century.
1.1. Tribes
When Islam first emerged, the desert of the Arabian Peninsula was occupied by tribes that often confronted each other and did not have a political power that united them. Their religion was polytheistic. In other words, they believed in many gods. Mecca was a sacred city by this time, as people worshipped the Kaaba, or black stone, and different idols. Most of the population was nomadic and they lived by grazing goats and camels. There were also groups of merchants. They crossed the desert in caravans that traded goods from the Far East and the Mediterranean. The importance of these caravans favored the emergence of urban settlements such as Mecca and Medina.
2. Muhammad
Muhammad was born in the city of Mecca in around 570. He traveled in his uncle’s caravans until, after a period of meditation, he claimed to have received the call of Allah, the Arabic name for God. From that moment, he began preaching about a new monotheistic religion – Islam – which means ‘submission (to Allah)’. His followers were called Muslims, which means ‘those who submit (to Allah)’.
Muhammad is the Prophet of Islam
- 570: He was born in Mecca.
- 610: According to legend, the archangel Gabriel appeared before him and told him to preach a new religion called Islam.
- 610 – 622: Muhammad preached Islam in Mecca. He became an enemy of rich merchants and authorities because Islam denied polytheism, and Mecca’s wealth was based on the pilgrimage to the Kaaba, which had a polytheistic nature.
- 622: Muhammad and his followers escaped from Mecca to Yathrib (renamed Medina = “City of the Prophet”). This event is known as the Hegira, and it’s taken as the beginning of the Muslim calendar.
- 622 – 630: Muhammad lived in Medina, where he became a political, religious, and military leader:
- He created the first community of Muslim believers.
- He organized an army.
- 630: He conquered Mecca and continued the expansion of Islam across the rest of the Arabian Peninsula.
- 632: Muhammad died having achieved the unification of the Arabic tribes under a common political and religious leader.
3. The Principles and Pillars of Islam
- Proclaiming faith in Allah, expressed in the phrase ‘there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet’.
- Praying five times a day facing Mecca.
- Giving charity to the poor.
- Fasting during the day in the month of Ramadan.
- Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their life.
4. The Monotheistic Religions
Islam was inspired by the two great monotheistic religions: Judaism and Christianity. These religions were known in Arabia, probably because of the routes taken by the caravans. Muhammad believed that there were two types of people: pagans, on whom Islam should be imposed, and the people of the Book (Christians and Jews), who should be treated well.
5. The Expansion of Islam
Muhammad’s preaching was not well accepted in his city, Mecca, mainly because he opposed polytheism. As a result, Muhammad was expelled from Mecca in 622. This date is known as the Hegira and is the date that starts the Muslim calendar. After this, the prophet and his followers took refuge in the city of Medina, where Muhammad also became a military and civilian chief. The process of the expansion of Islam began. Along with the language, this was a way of uniting the Arabs. Eight years after the Hegira, Muhammad returned triumphantly to Mecca. He ended the worship of all idols, except for the Kaaba, where he introduced Islamic rites. After this time, Muslims rapidly gained territory, aided by the weakness of the Byzantine Empire. Over the period of a century, the Muslims gained control over a vast territory. The key to the religion’s rapid expansion lay in the warlike zeal of its followers, who were convinced that paradise awaited them if they died in combat, or a large booty if they managed to survive. However, the most effective factor was the intelligent policy of assimilating non-Arabs who had been conquered. They gradually submitted to Islam and contributed to its expansion.
6. The Koran
Islam’s holy book is the Koran (or Quran). Muhammad’s teachings were put into writing in this book. As well as the religious aspects of Islam, the rules for the behavior of believers are written in this book. For example, it states that Muslims must not eat pork or drink alcohol, that they should be tolerant of other religions, and that they must not depict Allah or Muhammad in images or sculptures.
7. Medieval Islam
7.1. Political Organization
After Muhammad’s death, the great empire that was formed was known as a caliphate because it was led by a caliph. He was the highest political and religious authority and was considered the Prophet’s successor. The caliph governed, aided by the following officials:
- The vizier (or minister) was in charge of the central administration.
- Valis were the governors of the provinces of the empire.
- The diwan (or royal treasurer) was responsible for collecting taxes.
- Cadi administered justice according to the rules of the Koran.
7.2. Society
The nature of society was determined by the existence of different religious groups. The following groups of Muslims could be distinguished:
- An aristocratic minority occupied the highest positions in the administration. It was usually made up of family members of rich caliphs or emirs.
- An intermediate group consisted of traders and smallholders.
- Most of the population was made up of craftsmen and farmers who did not own property. They were all required to pay high taxes.
- There were also slaves, although their situation was generally less harsh than in Rome and the Germanic kingdoms.
Jews and Christians had their own laws. They could follow their religion but paid special taxes in return.
7.3. Economy
Islamic civilization arose in territories with very little rain, so the development of agriculture depended on the creation of irrigation systems to supply water. These systems were made up of ditches and water wheels. As a result, a thriving agriculture developed in which the predominant crops were rice and fruit, as well as olives, wheat, and grapes. Trade was particularly important due to the location of the Islamic territory between Africa, Europe, and the Far East. In addition, maritime trade was boosted by the development of navigational instruments such as the compass and the astrolabe. For commercial transactions, merchants used hard currency, such as the gold dinar and silver dirham.
8. Al-Andalus
Benefiting from all the inventions and new products that flowed throughout the Islamic empire, the Islamic empire served as a cultural and economic channel between Asia, Africa, and Europe.
9. The Medieval Islamic City
The main socioeconomic characteristic of medieval Islamic civilization was the predominance of cities over the countryside.
10. Muslim Art and Culture
Muslim art was mainly expressed in architecture. The influences of other cultures can be seen, especially Persian and Byzantine. The most characteristic building was the mosque, but there were also other important civilian buildings, including the residences of the caliphs and bath houses.
10.1. Islamic Art
Islamic art is very easy to recognize by everyone because of its own characteristics.
Key Characteristics:
- Poor building materials (brick, plaster, wood).
- Columns, pillars, and arches (rounded, lobed, horseshoe).
- Buildings covered by domes and flat wooden roofs.
- Decoration with plaster, ceramics, and paint (geometric patterns, floral motifs and inscriptions).
- Water used as decoration.
- Also works with ceramics, glass, ivory, leather, bronze, and wood.
10.2. Common Types of Mosque Architecture
[Content about common types of mosque architecture could be added here.]
10.3. Cultural Splendor
Islam was involved in significant cultural activity during the Middle Ages. This was based on Islamization (spreading the religion) and Arabization (spreading the use of the Arabic language). It was a culture of fusion because Muslims studied the philosophy and science of Greece and Rome, as well as the cultures of India, from where we get our current number system, and China, from which they learned about astronomy, mathematics and literature, and other advances such as gunpowder and paper. Muslims embraced these contributions to culture and, thanks to the spread of Islam, they reached the West. The synthesis of all these influences contributed to the cultural splendor of Islam, which is characterized by:
- The development of sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and geography;
- Philosophical knowledge, with thinkers like Averroes and Avicenna; literature dominated by love poetry and collections of stories, including One Thousand and One Nights.
11. Al-Andalus
The arrival of the Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th century is related to a civil war between the Visigoths when different factions fought to succeed to the throne. One of the opposing sides, formed by the opponents of King Rodrigo, decided to seek the help of Muslims who were in North Africa. In 711, in response to this request for help, a Muslim army entered the Iberian Peninsula. In the same year, led by Tariq and Musa, it conquered King Rodrigo and began a rapid conquest of the Spanish territory.
11.2. The Political Organization (711–1031)
Al-Andalus gradually obtained greater independence from Islam throughout the 8th and 10th centuries. There were three phases in the political evolution of this stage.
The Muslims only settled in the richest agricultural regions, such as the Guadalquivir and Ebro valleys, and on the east coast. In poorer areas, such as the mountain ranges of northern Spain, there was much less pressure from the conquerors, so the Christians were able to organize enclaves of resistance. These Christian areas fought to secure their enclaves during the 8th century and later began a phase of expansion that led them to the River Duero. In response, the Muslims carried out expeditions against Christian territories. They departed from Córdoba to plunder the fields and obtain booty. These expeditions included those conducted by Abd al-Rahman III during his time as caliph (929–961) and Almanzor, who was the prime minister of the caliph Hixam II.
11.3. Economy in Al-Andalus
In al-Andalus, economic activity was intense and benefited from the urban nature of society, as well as a rise in trade. Gold and silver coins circulated in the Andalusian souks, facilitating trade with the East and West. The Muslims owned the richest agricultural areas, which they improved through technical innovations, especially irrigation. Cereals, vines, and olive trees were grown.
11.4. Society in Al-Andalus
Andalusian social stratification was complex. Social differences were motivated both by wealth and religion.