The Rise and Fall of Great Empires: Mughals, Ottomans, Safavids, and More
The Mughal Empire
Expansion of Muslim Rule in India
The Mughal Empire was founded by Muslims who established a powerful presence in India. Babur, the first Mughal emperor, played a pivotal role in expanding Muslim rule throughout the region.
Economic Policies and Religious Tolerance
Babur abolished taxes that hindered commercial growth within the empire, including the jizya, a tax imposed on non-Muslims. This policy fostered economic development and promoted religious tolerance.
The Sikh Religion
During this era, Sikhism, a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Guru Nanak, emerged in the Punjab region.
The Reign of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor, is renowned for constructing the Taj Mahal, a magnificent Islamic mausoleum.
Aurangzeb’s Policies
Aurangzeb, the grandson of Babur and the last great emperor, deviated from the previous policy of religious tolerance.
Akbar’s Reign
Akbar is considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors, having extended his rule over most of the Indian subcontinent. His military prowess formed the foundation of his strength.
The Ottoman Empire
Ghazis: Warriors of the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman: People who followed “Osman,” the most successful Ghazi.
Sultan: The supreme ruler, holding absolute power.
Jizya: A tax levied on non-Muslims, the proceeds of which did not fund the army.
Orkhan I: The second Ottoman leader, son of Osman.
Mehmed II: The leader of the Ottomans during the conquest of Constantinople.
The Safavid Empire
Shiite Muslim Dynasty in Persia
The Safavid Empire was a Shiite Muslim dynasty that ruled Persia from the 15th to the 18th century. Their culture drew influences from Persian, Ottoman, and Arab traditions.
Origins and Military Power
The dynasty was named after the religious leader Safi al-Din. To defend themselves against the Ottomans and Mughals, they assembled a formidable army.
Isma’il’s Reign and Shia Islam
At the age of 12, Isma’il embarked on a conquest of present-day Iran, achieving complete control within two years. He assumed the title of Shah (king) and declared Shia Islam as the state religion. However, his rule turned into a religious tyranny, particularly targeting Sunnis. Selim the Grim, the Ottoman leader, retaliated by ordering the execution of all Shias in his territory. This conflict contributed to the Battle of Chaldiran.
Shia Muslim Beliefs
Shia Muslims believe that after the Prophet Muhammad’s death, leadership of the Muslim community should have passed to a blood relative. Shia Muslims constitute a smaller branch of Islam compared to Sunnis.
The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
Timeline
1368: Hongwu establishes the Ming Dynasty, expelling the Mongols from China.
1398: Hongwu dies, and his son Yonglo ascends to the throne.
1405: Yonglo launches the first of seven voyages of exploration led by Zheng He.
1433: China enters a period of isolation.
1500s: Foreign trade is restricted to the Chinese government through three designated ports. Christian missionaries arrive in China.
1600s: After two centuries of rule, the Ming Dynasty weakens due to corruption, ineffective leadership, financial instability, high taxes, and poor harvests.
1644: The Manchus invade China, overthrowing the Ming Dynasty. They seize Beijing, and their leader proclaims himself emperor, establishing the Qing Dynasty.
The Qing Dynasty
Timeline
1661: Kangxi becomes emperor and rules for 60 years.
1736-1795: Qianlong’s reign marks a period of significant expansion and prosperity for China.
China Limits European Contacts
Key Figures and Events
Ming Dynasty: This dynasty, ruling from 1368 to 1644, witnessed substantial population growth in China. It is known for its trade expansion, cultural ties with the West, and achievements in drama, literature, and porcelain production.
Hongwu: The first Ming emperor, Hongwu, rose from peasant origins. He led the rebel army that expelled the Mongols from China in 1368. His agricultural reforms boosted rice production and improved irrigation systems. His adherence to traditions contributed to stability.
Yonglo: Hongwu’s son, Yonglo, continued his father’s policies but relocated the royal court to Beijing. He displayed a keen interest in the outside world, aiming to showcase China’s power and expand its territory.
Zheng He: A Chinese Muslim admiral, Zheng He led seven grand voyages of exploration. These expeditions were characterized by their massive scale, involving numerous large ships and a vast crew. Zheng He distributed gifts of silk and silver to demonstrate China’s superiority.
Manchus: Originating from Manchuria, a region northeast of the Great Wall, the Manchus invaded China, leading to the collapse of the Ming Dynasty.
Qing Dynasty: The name given by the Manchus to their dynasty in China.
Kangxi: Ascending to the throne in 1661, Kangxi ruled for 60 years. He implemented measures to reduce government spending and lower taxes. As a scholar and patron of the arts, he gained the support of intellectuals. He also held favorable views towards Jesuit missionaries.
Europeans Explore the East
Portuguese Exploration and Trade
A typical Portuguese ship carried provisions such as salt beef, salt pork, salt cod, biscuits, oatmeal, dried peas, mustard seed, salt, flour, butter, vinegar, beer, water, and cider.
Prince Henry: The son of the Portuguese king, Prince Henry was a staunch advocate for exploration around 1415. He played a role in conquering the Muslim city of Ceuta in North Africa and founded a navigation school in 1419.
Motivations for Exploration: The primary motives for these voyages were”God, glory, and gold””Go” represented the desire to spread Christianity,”glor” signified the pursuit of recognition and fame, and”gol” encompassed the quest for valuable resources and riches.
Bartolomeu Dias: Dias sailed down the African coast, reaching its southern tip. A storm forced his ships around the Cape of Good Hope, where he explored the eastern coast. Although he intended to reach India, his crew’s fatigue and dwindling supplies compelled him to return.
Vasco da Gama: Da Gama successfully navigated the east African coast and arrived at the port of Calicut, India, in 1499. He was astonished by the abundance of spices, silks, fabrics, gems, and other valuable goods. His ships returned laden with treasures, the cargo’s worth exceeding the voyage’s cost by sixtyfold.
Line of Demarcation and Treaty of Tordesillas: To maintain peace between Spain and Portugal, Pope Alexander VI established the Line of Demarcation, an imaginary line dividing the newly discovered lands. Spain was granted the right to explore and claim lands west of the line, while Portugal received the east. The Treaty of Tordesillas formalized this agreement, ensuring both countries respected the division.
West Indian Company: This powerful trading company, operational from 1602 to 1800, focused on trade, exploration, and colonization. It held a monopoly over the spice trade and possessed semi-governmental powers, enabling it to initiate wars, prosecute criminals, negotiate treaties, and establish colonies. The Dutch West India Company was larger, more influential, and wealthier than its English counterpart.
Japanese Unification
The Warring States Period
1467: A civil war shattered Japan’s feudal system, ending centralized rule and transferring power to territorial lords instead of the shogun.
1467-1568: The Sengoku period, also known as the Warring States period, was marked by intense violence and upheaval. Powerful samurai seized control of former feudal states.
Daimyo: Warrior chiefs who emerged as lords in the new Japanese feudal system. The term”daimy” means”great name”
Kyoto: The former imperial capital became a symbolic figurehead with no real authority.
The Rise of New Leaders
1568: Oda Nobunaga defeated his rivals, captured Kyoto, and established his rule through military force.
1575: Nobunaga’s forces, armed with muskets, decisively defeated a samurai cavalry force, marking the first effective use of firearms in Japan.
1582: Unable to fully unify Japan, Nobunaga committed ritual suicide known as seppuku.
1590: Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Nobunaga’s most capable general, gained control over most of the country.
1592: Hideyoshi launched an invasion of Korea, engaging in conflict with Korean and Ming Chinese forces.
1598: Hideyoshi died, and Japanese troops withdrew from Korea.
1600: Tokugawa Ieyasu, a powerful daimyo, achieved the unification of Japan after the Battle of Sekigahara. He earned the respect of other daimyo.
The Tokugawa Shogunate
Tokugawa established his capital in the small fishing village of Edo, which later became Tokyo.
He implemented the alternate attendance policy, allowing daimyo to govern their domains but requiring them to spend every other year in Edo. This policy helped maintain control and prevent rebellion.
Tokugawa founded the Tokugawa Shogunate, a hereditary military dictatorship that ruled Japan until 1867.
Tokugawa’s philosophy emphasized caring for the people, striving for virtue, and prioritizing the well-being of the country.
1616: Tokugawa Ieyasu died.