The Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848: A Historical Analysis
The Revolutions of 1820 and 1830
In the Restoration era, liberals were often part of secret organizations, with the Masons being the most prominent. These groups saw themselves as heirs to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, advocating for revolt against absolutism. They held influence in cities and sought to incorporate the townspeople.
This strategy was evident in the revolutionary wave between 1820 and 1824, which marked the first major challenge to the Restoration. Initial successes in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont led to brief periods of liberal rule, which were ultimately suppressed by absolutist forces. The Holy Alliance intervened in Spain and the Italian states, leading to harsh repression.
A second wave occurred between 1829 and 1839, where popular support aided in the defeat of aristocrats. The revolution began in France in 1830 with the overthrow of the Bourbons, resulting in a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe. This revolution spread to Belgium, which gained independence. However, in Poland, an independence movement was quickly crushed by the Russian army.
By 1830, absolutism was waning in Western Europe, and moderate liberalism was gaining ground, often referencing the French Constitution of 1791. This consolidated the dominance of the landowning bourgeoisie, while the aristocracy had to concede certain privileges to maintain their economic standing. Moderate liberal elites monopolized political power, marginalizing the petty bourgeoisie and working classes, and advocating for census suffrage.
The Revolutions of 1848
The revolutions of 1848 effectively ended the Restoration period. The causes can be traced to the failures of the reforms of 1830 and the social unrest caused by the development of capitalism, which led to a decline in the living standards of artisans and workers.
This new wave of revolutions displayed a great diversity in form and content. In Western Europe, new democratic ideas emerged, advocating for popular sovereignty and universal suffrage.
The revolution began in Paris in February 1848 when Louis Philippe restricted freedoms. The insurrection led to the seizure of the Royal Palace, the king’s flight, and the proclamation of a republic. A provisional government, composed of republicans, socialists, and radicals, implemented reforms such as universal male suffrage, the abolition of slavery and the death penalty, and non-state intervention in economic life to guarantee the right to work for the unemployed.
However, a government of moderate Republicans moved to close the National Workshops and reverse the reforms. This triggered an insurrection in 1848, marking a confrontation between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The rebellion was crushed by the army, and the bourgeoisie coalesced around a strong government that ensured a liberal regime against popular aspirations. In December, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, later proclaiming the Second Empire in 1851 as Napoleon III.
The impact of the revolution in Paris was immediate and spread throughout Europe. The Austrian Empire became a constitutional monarchy, and serfdom was abolished. Only Russia retained its feudal structures. By December 1848, the bourgeois revolutions were complete, and the role of the popular classes began to grow. This raised new political horizons and foreshadowed the evolution of liberalism towards democracy.