The Restoration in Spain: Political and Social Transformations (1874-1898)
1. The Political System of the Restoration
1.1 The Monarchy Restored
Spanish society, tired of instability, welcomed the proclamation of Alfonso XII as king, restoring the Bourbon dynasty. Despite facing obstacles, Alfonso XII had the support of the landed gentry, Catalan industrialists, the military, and the Vatican. He was appointed king on December 29, 1874, and quickly gained popular sympathy, especially during his youth. The Restoration can be divided into three phases: the first until 1885 (Alfonso XII’s death), the second under the regency of Maria Cristina, and the third during the early reign of Alfonso XIII.
1.2 Fundamental Doctrine
The Restoration aimed to achieve political stability, synthesize old and new ideas, impose order, prioritize civilian power over militarism, and establish a pact between all political forces.
1.3 The Monarchical Constitution of 1876
During Cánovas’s period, a commission of notables drafted the Constitution of 1876. It aimed to balance progressive and conservative ideals. The first title outlined individual rights, reflecting a moderate and conservative approach. Roman Catholicism was declared the official religion. The Cortes Generales consisted of two chambers: the Senate and the Congress of Deputies. The Electoral Act of 1878 established the electoral system. However, many inequalities existed between the Constitution and reality. Spain had a high illiteracy rate and an inefficient agricultural system.
2. Functioning of the System: Social and Institutional Basis
2.1 The Political Parties
Cánovas, inspired by the English parliamentary system, agreed to a system where two dynastic parties would alternate in power: the Conservative Party, representing the upper classes, and the Liberal Party, representing the industrial bourgeoisie. Cánovas led the Conservatives, while Sagasta led the Liberals. These parties enjoyed popular support, as well as the backing of the army and the church. Outside of this system were anti-dynastic parties with limited influence.
2.2 The Peaceful Turnismo
The turnismo system ensured that neither party ruled without a majority in the chambers. The Liberal and Conservative parties alternated in power. The process involved the elected deputies choosing the prime minister, and the civilian government manipulating elections to maintain control.
2.3 Oligarchy and Caciquismo
The turnismo system resulted in an oligarchy, where the leaders of the two main parties held significant power. This power was primarily economic, a consequence of Spain’s predominantly rural society. Caciquismo, a system of local political bosses, emerged as a consequence of the turnismo and contributed to the eventual crisis of the Restoration.
2.4 The Crisis of the Canovas System
The death of Alfonso XII and the subsequent regency of Maria Cristina led to the Pact of El Pardo, which further entrenched patronage and electoral fraud. The crisis of 1898 exposed the limitations of the system, as the political elite failed to address pressing socio-economic issues.
2.5 Oligarchy and Caciquismo in Andalusia
Andalusia exemplified the prevalence of caciquismo. Three types of political bosses existed: the cacique de cuna (local notable), the cacique notable (influential figure), and the cacique (powerful boss). Each provincial capital had its own cacique, who exerted significant influence over local politics.
2.6 Policies during the Restoration
The main objective of the governments of Alfonso XII and the regency was pacification. The army was reconciled with the state, abandoning the practice of pronunciamientos. Alfonso XII imposed civilian control over the military. The church was also reconciled with the state. The denominational state was restored, and the church regained its influence. Cánovas granted freedom of worship. The army played a crucial role in pacifying the Carlists. The situation in Cuba proved challenging. Martínez Campos achieved peace in 1878, but the underlying tensions remained.
3. Republicanism, Labor Movement, and Nationalism
The Restoration faced three main political challenges: the survival of republicanism as an alternative to the monarchy, the development of the labor movement, and the rise of nationalist sentiments.
3.1 Republicanism and its Formulations
The Republican Party, weakened and exiled in France, took the French Third Republic as its model. The possibilists, led by Castelar, advocated for universal suffrage. Pi y Margall championed federalism. Zorrilla and Salmerón led more radical factions. Despite their differences, the republicans failed to unite and present a viable alternative to the monarchy. The Progressive Democratic Party and the National Republican Assembly attempted to revitalize the movement, but their efforts ultimately proved unsuccessful.
3.2 Workers’ and Peasants’ Organizations
To improve their living conditions, workers and peasants were initially attracted to anarchism and socialism. However, realizing the limitations of these ideologies, they turned to collective action. Strikes became a common form of protest. The socialist movement, led by Pablo Iglesias, gained momentum, particularly in mining areas and industrial centers. The UGT (General Union of Workers) was founded in 1888, and the anarchist CNT (National Confederation of Labor) in 1911. The Catholic Church, influenced by Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891), began to address social issues and promote the formation of Catholic trade unions.
3.3 Regionalisms and Nationalism
The rise of regionalist and nationalist movements was one of the most significant developments of the Restoration. These movements were fueled by cultural, linguistic, historical, economic, and political factors. Catalan nationalism emerged first and exerted a strong influence on other regionalist movements. Its roots lay in the Renaixença, a literary and cultural revival. Intellectuals like Verdaguer and Guimerá, along with the Catalan bourgeoisie, supported the movement. The proclamation of the Bases de Manresa in 1892 marked a turning point, as it outlined the demands for Catalan autonomy. The crisis of 1898 further fueled Catalan nationalism, with figures like Maragall, Almirall, and Cambó advocating for greater autonomy. More radical factions, like that of Prat de la Riba, also emerged. Basque nationalism, influenced by Catholicism and conservatism, gained support among the clergy and rural population. Sabino Arana Goiri founded the first Basque nationalist organization, Euskaldun Batzokija, in 1894. The PNV (Basque Nationalist Party) was founded in 1897. Galician nationalism, led by figures like Alfredo Brañas and Murguía, developed in a predominantly rural context.
4. The Fall of the Colonial Empire and its Impact
4.1 International Context of the Restoration
The Restoration coincided with a period of relative peace in Europe. Germany emerged as a leading power. France established the Third Republic, and Britain enjoyed the Victorian era. These years were marked by intense colonial expansion. European powers scrambled for control of Africa and Asia, while the United States emerged as a new imperial power. Spain, isolated internationally, struggled to maintain its colonial possessions, particularly in the face of growing American influence. This led to the Crisis of ’98.
4.2 The Fall of the Colonial Empire
Insurrections erupted in Cuba and the Philippines. The causes were Spain’s failure to implement the terms of the Zanjón Pact of 1878, its inability to absorb Cuban production, and its reluctance to grant autonomy to Cuba. A proposed autonomy project was rejected by the Cubans. The conflict, led by José Martí and supported by the peasantry, intensified. Cánovas’s attempts at reconciliation failed. In 1896, the war escalated. Spain divided the islands into three zones to hinder the rebel movement, but it failed to quell the rebellion.
U.S. President William McKinley demanded the pacification of Cuba and offered to purchase the island. However, the United States, encouraged by expansionist sentiment and fueled by sensationalist press, declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898, following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor.
The Spanish-American War was short-lived. Spain, unprepared for a modern war, was quickly defeated. The first major battle took place in Manila Bay, where the Spanish fleet was annihilated. The Philippines revolted. In the Atlantic, the Spanish fleet was blockaded by the U.S. Navy. On July 3, U.S. forces landed in Cuba and quickly captured Puerto Rico. The war was over.
4.3 The Treaty of Paris
The Treaty of Paris was signed in December 1898. Spain recognized the independence of Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. Spain sold other Pacific islands to Germany.
4.4 Repercussions
The Treaty of Paris marked the end of Spain’s overseas empire. The loss of its colonies triggered a deep economic and intellectual crisis. The intellectual reaction to the crisis gave rise to the Generation of ’98, a group of writers and intellectuals who sought to analyze the causes of Spain’s decline and propose solutions for its regeneration.