The Restoration in Spain: From Cánovas to Alfonso XIII
The Cánovas Restoration (1874-1885)
The Constitution of 1876
Spain experienced a period of relative peace and political order due to a widespread desire for stability. Cánovas del Castillo shaped the Bourbon Restoration based on:
- Traditional monarchy
- European-style constitutional government
- A legal system balancing freedom and authority
Key figures included:
- Alfonso XII
- Cánovas del Castillo and Práxedes Mateo Sagasta as leaders of their respective parties
The Constitution of 1876, drafted by a commission of notables, was designed to be short, flexible, and adaptable. It defined Catholicism as the official state religion while allowing freedom of worship. It established a parliamentary monarchy with sovereignty shared by the King and the Cortes. Census suffrage, introduced by Cánovas, limited voting rights to 5% of the population, creating an oligarchic power structure.
The Cánovas Political System
Cánovas del Castillo, a scholar and politician, authored the Manifesto of Sandhurst, outlining his political vision. His system rested on:
- The Constitution of 1876 (French model)
- A two-party system (English model)
The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas, and the Liberal Party, led by Sagasta, alternated in power. Carlist, Republican, and nascent labor parties were marginalized.
The Turno Pacífico (Peaceful Rotation)
Inspired by the British system, the turno pacífico involved the rotation of power between the two main parties. However, in Spain, this was a legal fiction maintained through electoral manipulation by local power brokers (caciques). While providing stability, it undermined democracy and allowed the oligarchy to maintain its grip on power.
Society During the Restoration: Oligarchy and Social Unrest
Spain’s population reached 18.5 million in the late 19th century. A growing divide emerged between the industrializing periphery (Catalonia, Basque Country, and Asturias) and the agrarian center. The industrial bourgeoisie and proletariat lacked the power to overcome the central oligarchy. The labor movement gained momentum, leading to the founding of the PSOE (1879) and the UGT (1889). Anarchist terrorism in Catalonia and social unrest stemming from land inequality further destabilized the country.
Economic Development and the Loss of Colonies
The Restoration initially saw economic growth fueled by foreign investment. Heavy industry, Catalan textiles, and railways flourished. However, declining wheat production and the phylloxera crisis in French vineyards impacted agriculture. From 1890, a protectionist economic policy was adopted. The loss of the colonies in 1898 (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines) exacerbated economic problems and fueled social unrest.
The Monarchy of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931)
Alfonso XIII’s Accession to the Throne
Alfonso XIII came of age in 1902, inheriting a system in need of reform. Regenerationist efforts focused on:
- Financial stability
- Social reforms (e.g., Sunday rest law, Institute of Social Reforms)
- Educational reform (Free Education Institute)
Opposition to the Turno System
Opposition to the two-party system came from Carlists, Republicans, peripheral nationalists (e.g., Catalan Lliga), and the growing labor movement. However, none posed a significant threat to the established order.
The Maura Government (1907-1909)
António Maura’s government attempted further regeneration through electoral reform, local government reform, and social legislation (e.g., right of association, National Insurance Institute). His nationalist economic policies and increased military presence in Morocco led to the Tragic Week in Barcelona (1909), marked by anticlerical riots and brutal repression, forcing Maura’s resignation.
The Canalejas Government (1909-1912)
José Canalejas, a Liberal leader, implemented reforms including tax reform, compulsory military service, and social welfare measures. His assassination in 1912 marked the end of the turno system and the failure of regeneration efforts.
The Crisis of 1917
Spain faced a major crisis in 1917, manifested in:
- Military discontent and the formation of juntas de defensa
- A failed parliamentary assembly movement in Catalonia
- A revolutionary general strike, brutally suppressed by the government
The Path to Dictatorship
The 1917 crisis fatally weakened the Restoration system. Governments of concentration struggled with internal divisions and failed to address pressing social and economic issues. The Disaster of Annual (1921) in Morocco further discredited the political system. Growing military resentment, regionalism, and social unrest paved the way for the 1923 coup led by Miguel Primo de Rivera.