The Restoration in Spain: Alfonso XII & Regency of María Cristina (1875-1902)
1. The Genesis of the Restoration (1875)
The instability of the Democratic Sexenio led the bourgeoisie towards conservative positions. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo orchestrated the return of Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II, to the throne. Cánovas aimed for a restoration based on public opinion, not a military coup. The Sandhurst Manifesto, outlining Alfonso’s conciliatory ideals, paved the way. General Martínez Campos’s pronouncement in Sagunto triggered the Restoration, proclaiming Alfonso king.
2. Cánovas and the Restoration’s Political System
Cánovas, inspired by the British model, sought a stable system based on a two-party rotation. His project had three pillars: the King and the Cortes, bipartisanship, and a moderate Constitution.
2.1 Two Historic Institutions: The King and the Cortes
Cánovas viewed the nation as a historical construct, with the King and the Cortes as key institutions. He embraced shared sovereignty between them.
2.2 Two Major Parties: Conservative and Liberal
Emulating the British system, Cánovas established the Conservative Party and, with Sagasta’s help, the Liberal Party. The Conservatives evolved from the Moderate Party, while the Liberals united various groups, excluding Carlists and Republicans.
2.3 The Moderate Constitution of 1876
The 1876 Constitution, notable for its flexibility, established shared sovereignty, addressed the religious question (favoring Cánovas’s position), increased royal prerogatives, and limited the power of the bicameral Cortes. The Senate was elitist, while the Congress’s electoral system was manipulable. This setup mirrored Isabel II’s reign, with a dominant monarch.
3. The System in Practice
Cánovas’s design became a farce due to agreed government changes (turno system) and electoral manipulation (caciquismo).
3.1 The Turno System
In the 1880s, most parties integrated into the two-party system. Parties alternated in power, accepting each other’s changes. The King, in agreement with both parties, would initiate government changes, dissolve Parliament, and call elections.
3.2 Caciquismo and Electoral Fraud
Elections were manipulated through a network involving the ruling elite in Madrid, provincial governors, and local bosses (caciques). Instructions flowed from Madrid downwards, ensuring desired election outcomes.
4. The Excluded
Major social movements, excluded from the system, ultimately contributed to its downfall.
4.1 Regionalism and Nationalism
- Catalan Nationalism: The Renaixença cultural movement evolved into the Catalan Regionalist League (1901), a conservative party with middle and upper-class support.
- Basque Nationalism: Driven by industrialization and the loss of historical privileges, Sabino Arana founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) in 1894. Initially radical, it later moderated its stance.
- Galician Regionalism: The Rexurdimento movement led to the Galician Regional Association, but its impact was limited due to the region’s economic backwardness.
4.2 The Worker and Peasant Movement
Workers’ associations developed clandestinely. Socialism, anarchism, and Catholic organizations emerged.
- Anarchism: Dominant in the Andalusian countryside and Catalan urban proletariat, anarchism rejected parliamentary action, with some factions embracing violence. The assassination of Cánovas in 1897 highlighted this.
- Socialism: Pablo Iglesias founded the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) in 1879 and the General Union of Workers (UGT) in 1888.
- Catholic Unions: The Catholic circles, founded in 1879, aimed to divert workers from radical influences, but their impact was limited.
5. The Reign of Alfonso XII (1875-1885): A Period of Success
Alfonso XII’s reign saw the consolidation of Cánovas’s system. The 1876 Constitution was enacted, the military’s political role was curtailed, the Carlist and Cuban wars ended, and Spanish capitalism benefited from a favorable economic climate.
5.1 Political Stabilization and Civilian Power
Cánovas achieved stability through a flexible constitution, the two-party system, and the turno. This led to the consolidation of civilian power.
5.2 End of the Carlist War (1876)
The Third Carlist War ended due to Carlist exhaustion, the new political landscape, and the regime’s strengthened military. Charles VII fled to France in 1876.
5.3 End of the Ten Years’ War in Cuba (1878)
General Martínez Campos, combining military force and negotiation, achieved the Peace of Zanjón, granting Cuba improved conditions and amnesty. A subsequent rebellion (Little War) was easily suppressed.
6. Towards Crisis: The Regency of María Cristina (1885-1902)
Alfonso XII’s death led to María Cristina’s regency. Cánovas’s assassination in 1897 dealt a blow to the regime.
6.1 Liberal Government Legislation (1885-1890)
Sagasta’s Liberal government enacted the Commercial Code (1885) and Civil Code (1890). Key legislation included the Law of Associations (1887), the Jury Act (1888), and Universal Suffrage (1890).
6.2 The Colonial Disaster and the Crisis of ’98
- Cuban War and War with the United States (1895-1898): Spanish resistance to Cuban autonomy fueled independence sentiment. The 1895 revolt, led by José Martí, Máximo Gómez, and Antonio Maceo, escalated into war with the United States, resulting in the destruction of the Spanish fleet and U.S. occupation of Cuba and Puerto Rico.
- Treaty of Paris (1898): Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States.
- Crisis of ’98: The colonial disaster led to criticism of the government, loss of colonial markets (offset by capital repatriation), and a national identity crisis, reflected in the Regenerationist movement and the pessimism of the Generation of ’98.
7. Social Attitudes and New Proposals
7.1 Social Conservatism
Restoration society valued land ownership, nobility, and displays of wealth, echoing pre-revolutionary values.
7.2 Regenerationism
Emerging after the Crisis of ’98, Regenerationism offered alternative political proposals. Critical Regenerationists, like Silvela and Maura, focused on specific system flaws. Others, like Joaquín Costa, criticized the entire Restoration framework.
7.3 Education as a Tool for Social Improvement
Educational progress was limited. Notable initiatives included the Free Educational Institution, the Ave Maria School, and the Modern School.