The Restoration in Spain (1874-1931)
The Constitution of 1869
This constitution established a broad statement of rights, including some not yet recognized, such as the inviolability of correspondence and the freedom to work for foreigners. It recognized national sovereignty, and the king’s power was conceived as constitutional. Power resided in the judicial courts, municipalities, and Diputación. The management of the interests of towns and the religious issue received advanced treatment, recognizing freedom of religion.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic lasted 11 months, with four successive presidents: Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi y Maragall, Nicolás Salmerón, and Emilio Castelar. The financial situation was dire, the army was largely monarchist, and martial strife was prevalent (the Third Carlist War and the Cuban independence movement). The international environment was also completely alien to the Spanish Republican problems. The Republican party was divided between unionists and federalists.
The Federal Republic and the Cantonalist Movement
Estanislao Figueras’ attempt to establish a federal republic faced twofold opposition: from radicals who wanted a unitary republic and from federalists. Figueras resigned, and Pi y Margall called a general election to confront the Carlist War and the cantonal insurrection. The 1872 electoral defeat encouraged Carlist military action. The Carlist movement saw a resurgence in regional and local support, exacerbated by Republican infighting. This evidenced the instability of the republic. After Salmerón’s fleeting presidency, Emilio Castelar applied the death penalty, called upon the army to restore order, reinforced state power, and abolished the federal principle.
The Unitary Republic
Castelar’s presidency was cut short by General Pavia’s coup. The republic of 1874 began, chaired by Serrano. However, Canovas continued to gather support. His triumph in Sagunto led to the proclamation of Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II, as king.
The Labor Movement
The labor movement resulted from social evolution during the industrial revolution, particularly in Catalonia. Workers faced a dire situation: job insecurity, low wages, and distress due to illness, unemployment, and old age. Throughout the reign of Isabel II, the industrial proletariat went through several phases, starting with basic demands for better working conditions and fair wages. Strikes and other forms of protest were met with repression by the liberal state, which outlawed worker associations. This led to the politicization of the worker’s movement, finding its political voice in the Republican Democratic Party.
The First International
Socialist thinkers like Fourier criticized capitalist society and advocated for better distribution of economic benefits and the organization of society into phalansteries. These ideas first appeared in Spain between 1835 and 1838. From this point, republicanism became a key element in the march toward labor solidarity, a factor also present in other pre-Marxist socialist currents imported into Spain in the 1840s by Owen, Blanc, and Proudhon.
Anarchism and Marxism
The September Revolution acknowledged the right of association and assembly. This led to the first contacts with the International Workingmen’s Association, established in 1864 in London. Two schools of thought emerged within the First International: Marxism and Anarchism, arriving in Spain with a slight difference in timing. Anarchist ideas spread through figures like Giuseppe Fanelli between 1868 and 1869. As a result, the Spanish Regional Federation of the International Workingmen’s Association was created, holding its first congress in 1870 in Barcelona. Marxism arrived in Spain through Paul Lafargue, finding support in Madrid. Pavia’s coup forced the Marxist movement underground.
The Restored Monarchy of Alfonso XII
Cánovas del Castillo orchestrated the return of Alfonso XII, restoring the Bourbon monarchy. He drafted the Sandhurst Manifesto in 1874, and after General Martínez Campos’s uprising in Sagunto, Alfonso XII was proclaimed king. Several phases can be distinguished in the evolution of the Restoration:
- The first phase lasted until 1885, the year of Alfonso XII’s death.
- The second phase saw Maria Christina of Austria, his wife, exercise the regency during the minority of Alfonso XIII.
- The third phase began in 1902 with Alfonso XIII’s coming of age. The Cánovas system continued until the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.
Doctrinal Foundations of the Restoration
The Restoration, devised by Cánovas and Sagasta, aimed to bring stability. Its main foundations were:
- The restoration was not only the return of the Bourbons but also the establishment of stability.
- An assessment of Spanish history was necessary.
- A sense of reality was imposed, adapting policy to time and place.
- Emphasis on civilian rule over militarism.
- Cánovas’s possibilism, seeking agreement between political forces.
The Constitution of 1876
Cánovas convened a commission to prepare a draft constitution. It defined shared sovereignty between the king and the Cortes, expressed the confessional nature of the state, and established a bicameral legislature. The electoral law of 1878 completed the constitution. Sagasta introduced universal male suffrage in 1890.
Oligarchy and Caciquismo
The Restoration system was characterized by an agreement between political and social power, creating an oligarchy. This oligarchy, composed of political leaders from both parties, was closely linked to landowners and the wealthy bourgeoisie. Caciquismo, a system of local political bosses, also played a significant role.
Republicanism, Labor, and Nationalism
Castelar formed the Possibilist Republican Party, while Pi y Margall, rejecting the new regime, promoted federal republicanism. The most effective Republican core was formed by Nicolás Salmerón and Gumersindo de Azcárate. The labor movement saw the strengthening of the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party under Pablo Iglesias. Regionalist movements, such as the Regionalist League in Catalonia, also gained momentum.
The Reign of Alfonso XIII
When Alfonso XIII came of age, the political system faced limitations. The Disaster of ’98 led to the regenerationist movement, aiming for economic recovery and societal transformation. The turnismo system continued until 1912, with attempts at reform by Conservative leaders like Maura and Liberal leaders like Canalejas. Internal problems persisted, including the religious question and the social question. Regionalism continued to grow, with movements like the Catalan Regionalist League aspiring to revive the Generalitat.