The Restoration and the Turn of the Century in Spain (1874-1923)
The Political System Restoration (1874-1923)
Constitution of 1876
The ruling of General Martinez Campos in December 1874 brought about the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy with Alfonso XII. The new political system, shaped by Canovas del Castillo, aimed to establish a two-party system similar to Britain, with Conservative and Liberal parties alternating in power. Canovas envisioned civilian governments with the military remaining autonomous in their barracks.
The new Constitution of 1876, effective from 1876 to 1931, was a synthesis of the moderate Constitution of 1845 and the more democratic one of 1869. It established shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes. The King held executive power, including veto right, appointment of ministers, and shared legislative power with the Cortes.
The Cortes consisted of two chambers: the Congress of Deputies (elected by a restricted electorate based on wealth and property) and the Senate (composed of life senators appointed by the King and major contributors). The judiciary was independent, and rights and freedoms were broadly stated but subject to ordinary laws that could restrict them, particularly regarding the press and association.
The Constitution declared Catholicism the state religion, with the clergy receiving state funding. Freedom of religion was allowed in private. Alfonso XII reigned from 1875 to 1885. Upon his death, his wife, Maria Christina of Austria, became regent until Alfonso XIII reached maturity in 1902. Alfonso XIII ruled until the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931. He was accused of attempting to rule outside the bounds of the Constitution.
The Liberal and Conservative Parties
The Liberal and Conservative parties agreed to defend the monarchy, respect the Constitution, and maintain a state based on liberal principles, order, capitalism, and centralism. They differed on the extent of freedoms (Liberals favored universal suffrage, while Conservatives preferred restricted suffrage) and the privileges of the Church (Liberals had a more secular vision).
The Conservative Party was led by Canovas del Castillo, representing conservative and traditional values. The Liberal Party, led by Sagasta, drew support from the middle class and professionals. Both parties formed an oligarchy that controlled power. From 1875 to 1881, the Conservatives governed, and from 1881 to 1884, the Liberals took over. After Alfonso XII’s death in 1885, the Pact of El Pardo established a system of regular alternation in power, with each party governing for four years.
In 1890, Sagasta introduced universal male suffrage, which the Conservatives accepted despite their disagreement. The electoral system was corrupt, with manipulation and falsification of records. When the government lost confidence, the King would call for elections, ensuring the victory of the opposition.
The Minister of Interior prepared lists of individuals to be elected in each constituency. These lists were sent to the civil governors in each province, who then passed them to the caciques (local bosses) to influence the voters. Caciquismo was particularly prevalent in rural areas, where manipulation of elections was rampant. This system marginalized significant sectors of society, leaving only a few seats for radical factions.
The Opposition
The opposition to the Restoration system came from various groups:
- Carlism: Defeated in 1876, the Carlists attempted to position themselves as the sole representatives of Catholicism but were divided by the Vatican’s support for the monarchy. They eventually adapted to liberalism, and in 1888, a faction split and created the Traditionalist Party.
- Republicanism: Defeated by the coup of 1874, the Republicans merged with the moderates. Progressives, led by Nicolás Salmerón, participated in elections. Splinter groups emerged, including the radical and anti-clerical party of Alejandro Lerroux and the Reformist Party of Melquiades Alvarez, supported by intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset. These groups advocated for a modernized and tolerant Spain and questioned the monarchy. Federal Republicans, led by Pi i Margall, also existed.
- Nationalism: Emerging nationalist movements appeared in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia. In Catalonia, the Catalanisme movement presented a list of grievances in 1891, denouncing oppression. The Unió Catalanista advocated for Catalan autonomy within a confederate Spain. In 1901, the newspaper La Veu de Catalunya mobilized voters. The Regionalist League, representing the industrial bourgeoisie, sought autonomy for Catalonia under the leadership of Francesc Cambó. The Associations Act of 1906 allowed for the creation of the Commonwealth of Catalonia, a federation of four Catalan provinces, with Prat de la Riba as its president. It held competencies in public works, culture, and social welfare until its suppression by Primo de Rivera in 1925. In the Basque Country, the movement for the reintegration of the fueros (traditional laws and privileges) gained strength. Sabino Arana founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) in 1895, advocating for the Basque race, privileges, and religion. He considered immigrants (maketos) inferior and responsible for all evils. Arana’s views moderated after 1901. In Galicia, a rural society with a weak bourgeoisie, Galicianism emerged after the Restoration. Intellectuals blamed the lack of a strong nationalist party for the region’s backwardness. The movement remained relatively minor.
Labor Organizations
Two main labor movements emerged during the Restoration:
- Anarchism: Internationalist anarchist ideas reached Spain in 1868. Organized groups were created, facing harsh repression. In 1881, with the Liberals in power, greater freedom was allowed. Anarchism gained a strong following in Catalonia and Andalusia, with two main factions: one advocating for union action through strikes and demonstrations, and another employing terrorist tactics against employers, the government, and the Church. Anarchists were responsible for the assassinations of Canovas del Castillo, José Canalejas, and Eduardo Dato, as well as attacks on General Martinez Campos and the Corpus Christi procession in Barcelona. Repression was severe, with many anarchists sentenced to death. Supporters of terrorism created the CNT (National Confederation of Labor), a revolutionary union with collectivist ideals, advocating for strikes and boycotts. Prominent figures included Salvador Seguí, Ángel Pestaña, and Joan Peiró. The CNT participated in the Tragic Week of Barcelona (1909) and burned crops in Andalusia. The Civil Guard was deployed to suppress them. The CNT also played a significant role in the La Canadiense strike of 1919. Following the assassination of Eduardo Dato in 1921, the government cracked down on anarchist violence. The CNT became increasingly fragmented, with Salvador Seguí advocating for a more moderate approach before his assassination in 1923.
- Marxism-Socialism: In Madrid, Pablo Iglesias founded the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) in 1879, advocating for a Marxist, revolutionary approach. The PSOE aimed for the dictatorship of the proletariat, nationalization of the means of production, and the elimination of exploitation. It gained support in Madrid, Vizcaya, and Asturias. The socialist trade union UGT (General Union of Workers) was founded in 1888 and affiliated with the Second International. Strikes took place in Asturias and Vizcaya. The PSOE gained its first parliamentary seat in 1910, running in coalition with Republicans, and its electoral strength continued to grow. The UGT advocated for negotiation between employers and workers, with strikes as a last resort. In 1921, radical socialist factions left the PSOE and formed the Communist Party of Spain (PCE), which aligned with the Third International.