The Renaissance: A Chronological Overview
Chronology of the Renaissance
The Renaissance arose in Italian cities during the 14th century. These Italian states became centers of art, attracting educated men from across Europe and serving as sources for the dissemination of new, pro-Western ideas. The three major authors of this period were Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.
The Spanish Renaissance unfolded in two stages: the pre-Renaissance of the 15th century and the full Renaissance of the 16th century.
The Pre-Renaissance (15th Century)
This era was a period of transition, marked by political, social, and moral crises. Traditional medieval ideas coexisted with a new attitude towards life, influenced by various factors that gradually introduced changes. Traditional folk poetry, with its roots in medieval tradition, continued to be widely popular. This included the traditional lyric and the romancero.
Courtly literature, characterized by its refined and gallant style, emerged and flourished in the restricted environment of royal courts. This literature encompassed poetry, prose romances, and books of chivalry.
The Full Renaissance (16th Century)
The first half of the 16th century, coinciding with the reign of Charles V, was a period of splendor in a strong and vital society. European literary and artistic currents were introduced, facilitated by Spanish humanists and artists who traveled to Italy or European artists who settled in Spain. Renaissance lyric poetry, exemplified by Garcilaso de la Vega, and didactic and critical literature, represented by the Valdés brothers and Alfonso de Valdés, flourished.
The second half of the century, under the reign of Philip II, saw a resurgence of traditional religiosity following the dogmas of the Council of Trent. The Inquisition was revived to pursue deviations from orthodoxy. Ascetic and mystical literature gained prominence, with figures like Fray Luis de León and San Juan de la Cruz.
From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance
The transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, culminating in the 15th century, was a long process that developed during the decline of the Middle Ages. In this pre-Renaissance period, the monolithic medieval worldview began to crumble amidst a crisis. Humanism emerged as the germ of a new vision of life, challenging the exclusive authority of faith and belief. A curious and critical attitude arose, leading to a renewed interest in classical languages and texts. The invention of printing in the mid-15th century revolutionized the dissemination of written culture, challenging the medieval tradition of oral poetry. Poetry began to be valued and collected in songbooks and romanceros.
The Political and Social Crisis of the 15th Century
The first two-thirds of the 15th century, under the reigns of Enrique III, John II, and Enrique IV, saw a weakening of the monarchy. Weak kings lost their power and political authority, leaving the government in the hands of private individuals or favorites. The nobility, enriched by the kings themselves, increased its power and organized into factions. This situation of anarchy led to the abandonment of the Reconquista, which had been the main objective of the Crown of Castile in the Middle Ages, and to the impoverishment of the general population. The reign of the Catholic Monarchs in the last third of the century brought about a strengthening of royal authority.
The Moral Crisis
During this period of crisis, the medieval ideas that had maintained a rigid social order and viewed earthly life as a transit to a secure and happy eternity were challenged. The anthropocentric conception of the medieval world was questioned, and a spirit of rebellion against hierarchy emerged. The boundaries between the divine and the human began to be redefined, while fortune and death became prominent concerns. Courtly literature, born in the aristocratic circles of the court, reflected this environment of refinement and gallantry.
Courtly Poetry
Courtly poetry, intended for a minority audience within the court, was often collected in songbooks. This poetry was influenced by various cultural and literary trends. In contrast to the predominantly epic or religious content of medieval literature, the influence of the Provençal troubadours from southeastern France led to a focus on courtly love. Love was seen as a source of grace and ennoblement, expressed with conventional and rhetorical artifices. Didactic poetry, addressing moral issues in a solemn and judgmental tone, also flourished. Echoes of the great Italian Renaissance masters, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, were also present, as was the influence of Greco-Roman culture and humanism.
The Great Poets of the 15th Century
The Marqués de Santillana, a powerful nobleman with a broad humanistic culture, assembled a large library and showed a taste for Italian authors and forms of Provençal culture.
Juan de Mena, Latin secretary to King John II, was a humanist with a love for classical culture and dedicated to literary creation.
Íñigo López de Mendoza, Marqués de Santillana, was a powerful nobleman with a broad humanistic culture who assembled a large library and showed a taste for Italian authors and forms of Provençal culture.
Jorge Manrique, involved in politics and who died very young in battle, composed the famous Coplas a la muerte de su padre, a reflection on the themes of death and the fleeting nature of life.
Traditional Folk Poetry
Traditional folk poetry encompassed two main forms: the traditional lyric and the romancero. Both were widely popular. The traditional lyric, anonymous and born among the people, arose from specific occasions, joys, or misfortunes, and addressed universal themes. It was disseminated by minstrels and through oral tradition. The romancero consisted of narrative ballads. The earliest examples are the Mozarabic jarchas, dating back to the 12th century. These were short, popular songs, often dealing with the theme of love from a female perspective. The Castilian traditional lyric has limited written records from the Middle Ages, as it was primarily an oral tradition, often disregarded by learned poets. Love songs, including a variety of forms such as spring songs, albas, and pilgrimage songs, were also popular.
The Changing Mentality
During the decline of the Middle Ages and the rise of the Italian Renaissance, a significant shift in mentality occurred. The medieval religiosity that had centered life around the love and fear of God gave way to an anthropocentric attitude, where man was considered the measure of all things. Faith in dogma yielded to the authority of reason, curiosity, and a critical spirit, which would form the basis of modern science and geographical discoveries. The anonymity and collectivism of the Middle Ages were replaced by individualism, celebrating man and his achievements. Fame and success in social or political activity were valued, as were intellectual and artistic pursuits. The medieval emphasis on devotion and mortification was replaced by an embrace of vitality and the secularization of life. The world was no longer seen as a prison or a vale of tears, but as something worth living in. People enjoyed pilgrimages, parties, and celebrations. There was a separation between religion and life, accompanied by an exaltation of human love and an admiration for pagan art.
Thematic and Formal Revolution in 16th-Century Renaissance Poetry
Renaissance poetry was not a direct continuation of the trends initiated in the 15th century. It was introduced by Juan Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega, who brought new themes and forms from Italy. Platonic love, nature, and classical mythology were manifestations of this new vision of poetry.
New Themes
Platonic Love: Influenced by Neoplatonic philosophy and the poetry of Francesco Petrarch, love was seen as a spiritual source of life and a path to perfection. It ennobled and beautified the lover, who contemplated the physical beauty and moral perfection of the beloved. This spiritual love is the foundation of much Renaissance poetry, such as Petrarch’s Canzoniere, which collects his poems dedicated to his idealized love, Laura, and the sonnets and eclogues of Garcilaso de la Vega.
Nature: Through the Italian Renaissance, classical literature reached Spain, bringing with it a renewed appreciation for nature. Landscape descriptions became more prominent, often idealized and harmonious, reflecting the classical locus amoenus. The revival of classical themes also manifested in numerous quotes, motifs, and recreations of characters and themes from Greco-Roman mythology.
New Rhythmic and Metric Structures
As important as the subject matter was the formal renewal, based on the adoption of new Italian metric and rhythmic structures. These deviated from the traditional Spanish octosyllabic verse. With Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega, the Italian hendecasyllable became firmly established, either alone or in combination with heptasyllabic verse, creating new strophic forms.
Panorama of 16th-Century Castilian Lyric
The first half of the century was dominated by Boscán, Garcilaso, and the poets of the so-called Italianate school, who introduced new Italian forms and themes, contrasting with the traditional Castilian style. In the second half, new themes and forms emerged, which can be grouped into two main trends: profane poetry, focused on Platonic love, and ascetic-mystical poetry, in which Platonic love and nature acquired symbolic meaning. Fray Luis de León, with his austere and intellectual style, represents the poetics of Salamanca.
Profane Poetry
Garcilaso de la Vega: A nobleman from a distinguished family, Garcilaso was born in Toledo and spent his life in the service of Emperor Charles V. He carried out diplomatic missions, participated in various military campaigns, and visited Italy on several occasions. Garcilaso embodies the ideal of the Renaissance gentleman, combining arms and letters. However, in his poetry, he disregards the echoes of war and the activities of the courtier to focus on love, expressing the pain of an impossible love. His literary production is brief: three eclogues, five songs, forty sonnets, and some other poems. He is considered a true master of the Renaissance style.
Mystical Poetry
Ascetic and mystical literature combined medieval religious tradition with the new Renaissance spirituality. This literature described the path to perfection, the ascending scale that the soul follows to reach communion with God.
- The Way of Purification: The soul, through penance, is cleansed of sin and freed from passions.
- The Way of Illumination: The soul is guided by examples of saints and focuses on the Passion and Redemption.
- The Way of Union: Through a special grace, the soul detaches itself from the world and achieves spiritual union with Christ.
The first path is common to both ascetics and mystics, while the other two are a privilege reserved for mystics.
Fray Luis de León
Born in Belmonte in 1527, Fray Luis de León’s life was linked to Salamanca, where he studied theology. In 1572, he was denounced to the Inquisition for preferring the Hebrew text of the Bible and for translating biblical texts into vernacular languages, which was prohibited by the Council of Trent. He was imprisoned for almost five years, suffering all kinds of hardships. In 1576, he triumphantly returned to the university. Fray Luis was a man of wide culture, enjoying great fame among his contemporaries and the admiration of his students. He had a controversial and passionate temperament and was involved in numerous disputes and confrontations.
His prose works often mix biblical commentaries with personal experiences and observations. Notable examples include The Names of Christ, The Perfect Wife, and translations and commentaries on the Song of Songs and the Book of Job. His poetry is characterized by its brevity, intensity, and intellectual depth.
San Juan de la Cruz
Born in Fontiveros in 1542, San Juan de la Cruz entered the Carmelite Order at a young age. He studied in Salamanca and, in collaboration with Santa Teresa de Jesús, undertook the reform of the Carmelite Order for men, restoring and founding monasteries. In 1577, resentment and jealousy within the order led to his imprisonment for eight months, where he suffered all kinds of humiliation.
San Juan de la Cruz is considered one of the greatest poets of the Spanish language. His poems, though few in number, are characterized by their profound expression of love and mystical experience. His poetry is traditionally classified into two major poems: Dark Night of the Soul and Spiritual Canticle, and minor poems, nineteen in number, which are also a manifestation of his highly original spiritual experience.