The Reigns of Charles I and Philip II of Spain
Charles I (1500-1558)
Early Life and Inheritance
Born in Ghent in 1500, Charles was the son of Joanna of Castile and Philip of Austria. His maternal grandparents were the Catholic Monarchs, and his paternal grandfather was Maximilian I. Following his father’s death in 1506, and his mother’s confinement due to mental illness, his grandfathers, Ferdinand and Maximilian, took over the regencies of Castile and the Netherlands, respectively.
Charles inherited a vast empire:
- From Isabella I: Castile, Granada, Navarre, North Africa, the Canary Islands, and America.
- From Ferdinand II: Aragon, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, Naples, and Roussillon.
- From Mary of Burgundy: Flanders, Burgundy, and Franche-Comté.
- From Maximilian I: The German Empire, Austria, and several duchies.
Domestic Policy
In 1517, Charles was proclaimed King of Castile and Aragon. Upon arriving in Spain, he met with the Cortes of Castile in Valladolid, who made the following requests:
- That he learn to speak Castilian.
- That he not appoint foreigners to government positions.
- That he not send Castilian gold abroad.
- That he show more respect for his mother, Joanna, the legitimate Queen of Castile.
Charles was also sworn in as King of Aragon. Upon Maximilian’s death, he was proclaimed King of the Romans. Leaving many unresolved issues in Spain, he appointed Adrian of Utrecht as regent, which led to significant unrest:
- Revolt of the Comuneros: A protest by artisans and merchants against Charles’s perceived disrespect for Castilian law and economic policies. Concurrent peasant revolts also occurred. The revolt was suppressed in 1521 at the Battle of Villalar.
- Revolt of the Germanies: Primarily in Valencia and Mallorca, this revolt involved armed militias initially formed to combat Muslim pirates. Taking advantage of a plague epidemic and the absence of the nobility, the militias seized power. The rebellion was quelled by the royal army in 1523.
Foreign Policy
Charles I’s reign was marked by several conflicts:
- Wars with France: Four wars were fought, most notably the Battle of Pavia in 1525, where the French king was captured. Charles also sacked Rome in 1527. The Peace of Cambrai led to his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor.
- Conflict with the Ottoman Empire: Charles contended with the Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean, led by Suleiman the Magnificent and the Barbary pirate Barbarossa. While Charles recaptured Tunis, Algiers remained under Ottoman control.
- Conflict with Protestants: Charles sought to maintain Catholic unity. The Edict of Worms (1521) excommunicated Protestants, leading to the formation of the Schmalkaldic League. Despite victory at the Battle of Mühlberg (1547), Charles ultimately had to recognize religious freedom with the Peace of Augsburg.
Philip II (1527-1598)
Overview
Son of Charles I and Isabella of Portugal, Philip II ascended to the throne in 1556. Under his rule, the Spanish Empire reached its zenith, becoming the first global empire in history.
Domestic Policy
- Religious Issues: Philip prioritized religious unity, banning Protestant books and continuing the Inquisition. The Morisco Revolt of the Alpujarras (1567) was a reaction to the suppression of Morisco culture.
- Aragonese Crisis: The arrest of Antonio Pérez, Philip’s secretary, for the alleged murder of John of Austria, led to unrest in Aragon. Pérez, protected by Aragonese law, fled to France. Philip suppressed the rebellion and executed Juan de Lanuza, the Justicia of Aragon.
- Succession Issues: Philip’s four marriages—to Maria Manuela of Portugal, Mary I of England, Elisabeth of Valois, and Anna of Austria—were driven by the need for a male heir. His first son, Carlos, was imprisoned and died under mysterious circumstances. Only his son by Anna, Philip III, survived to adulthood and succeeded him.
- Economic Troubles: Philip inherited and exacerbated a substantial debt, leading to three bankruptcies during his reign. Despite the influx of gold from America, the cost of wars strained the treasury, leading to increased taxes and discontent.
Foreign Policy
- France: Spain achieved victory over France at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557), leading to the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), which affirmed Spanish dominance.
- Netherlands: Philip’s tax increases led to the Dutch Revolt, led by William of Orange. Despite the Duke of Alba’s brutal repression, the revolt continued, eventually leading to the division of the Netherlands.
- England: The Spanish Armada, launched in 1588, aimed to invade England but was defeated by storms and English naval forces.
- Ottoman Empire: Philip led the Holy League to victory against the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), halting Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean.
- Portugal: Philip inherited the Portuguese throne in 1580, uniting the Iberian Peninsula under Spanish rule.
- America: The Philippines were conquered, and Portuguese territories in America came under Spanish control, leading Philip to boast that “the sun never sets on my empire.”