The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs in Spain
The Dynastic Union of the Catholic Monarchs
John II ruled Aragon, and Henry IV, also of the Trastámara dynasty, ruled Castile. Upon the death of Henry IV’s sister, Elizabeth, she faced her niece, Juana la Beltraneja, for the throne. Juana relied on her fiancé, Alfonso of Portugal, while Isabella’s husband was Ferdinand, the future King of Aragon, whom she married in 1469. The Castilian Civil War broke out in 1474. The nobles supported Isabella, believing her to be the better queen. Finally, in 1479, the war ended with the Treaty of Alcaçovas, which declared Isabella the rightful heir to the throne. Her husband ascended the Aragonese throne upon his father’s death that same year. Castile and Aragon remained separate kingdoms (with borders) but laid the foundation for future unification of the peninsula. They aimed for an authoritarian monarchy, empowering institutions to strengthen the monarchy and creating new ones. Isabella subdued many nobles to reinforce her authority but also rewarded those who helped her ascend the throne. They also sought religious unification, culminating in the expulsion of the Jews in 1492. They pursued territorial unification by conquering Granada and Navarre and later annexing Portugal through marriage alliances.
The Catholic Monarchs: Conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada
By the late fifteenth century, the Muslim presence in Spain was limited to the Kingdom of Granada. In 1481, the Catholic Monarchs launched the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom. The war lasted for a decade, organized around military campaigns led by nobles. This conquest was justified by a sense of crusade to spread the Christian faith. Aragon supported the war but only Castilian troops participated in the fighting. They took advantage of internal disputes within the Nasrid kingdom, such as the rebellion of the Abencerrajes. There was a struggle for the throne between Zagal and Abu al-Hasan. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (the Great Captain) played a crucial role in this war and subsequent campaigns, establishing the tercios, an organized military system (infantry, cavalry, artillery). This was the embryo of the standing army that would later become so important. In 1492, the Capitulations of Santa Fe were signed, ending the conquest. Initially, there was considerable tolerance towards the Granadan Muslims, but this was short-lived. Cardinal Cisneros, in 1499, implemented a policy of persecution that forced conversion or exile. Muslims became converted Moriscos.
State Organization Under the Catholic Monarchs: Government Institutions
The Catholic Monarchs desired an authoritarian monarchy and empowered institutions to strengthen it, creating new ones as well. The Holy Brotherhood was created to ensure internal security. The Council of the Supreme aimed to control the highest echelons of the Church, preventing control from Rome. They reinforced councils intended to control the nobility, such as the Council of Castile. The mayorazgo, a system of primogeniture, ensured that noble estates were inherited in their entirety by the eldest heir. The primary objective was religious unification. In 1480, they received a papal bull granting them the authority to establish the Spanish Inquisition, common to both Castile and Aragon. The Inquisition had absolute authority on the peninsula and was responsible for religious unification (expulsion of the Jews) and the persecution of false converts. The Grand Inquisitor was Fray Tomás de Torquemada.
Foreign Policy Under the Catholic Monarchs: Italy and North Africa
Aragon had been interested in expanding its influence in the Mediterranean since the thirteenth century, specifically in Italy. They frequently clashed with France (Charles VIII) in the south of Italy. Military campaigns were launched to reclaim southern Italy, with the Great Captain and his tercios defeating the French at Gaeta, Cerignola, and Garigliano. Ferdinand formed a coalition with the Papacy and consolidated Aragon’s presence in Italy. They also had significant commercial interests in the Mediterranean and were concerned about piracy, leading Castile to strengthen its presence in North Africa. Cardinal Cisneros, who wielded considerable political power after the Queen’s death (1506-1516), served Castile’s political interests and became regent. He organized campaigns aimed at converting North Africa and captured Melilla, Oran, Béjaïa, and Mazalquivir. When Charles I ascended the throne, Cisneros’s influence in North Africa was significant. Castilian policy also focused on the Canary Islands, linked to Atlantic expansion.
The Discovery of America
Portugal and Castile were engaged in a race to discover new sea routes, investing heavily in navigation to obtain scientific and cartographic data. This led to intense rivalry with Portugal, which tried to use the Treaty of Alcaçovas to gain advantages over Castile. The Canary Islands held a strategically important position in the discovery of America. Their conquest began in the mid-fifteenth century through campaigns led by nobles. Columbus initially presented his project to the Portuguese monarchs, but they rejected it. The Catholic Monarchs agreed to support it despite their limited finances. They signed a contract with Columbus before the voyage, granting him 10% of all discoveries and ensuring that his heirs could inherit those rights. He made four voyages, but the monarchs received reports that he was abusing his power and removed him from his position to demonstrate their authority. The newly discovered territories became an extension of the Castilian kingdom, and their inhabitants were considered subjects of the Crown. The primary goals were to spread Christianity and establish a political and administrative organization that mirrored Castile’s. Part of the Castilian population migrated to the Americas, leading to minimal mixing with the indigenous population. The discovery had profound political, economic, and demographic consequences.