The Reign of Isabella II of Spain: Liberalism, Conflicts, and Reforms
The Reign of Isabella II (1833-1868)
The reign of Isabella II spanned from 1833, upon the death of her father Ferdinand VII, to 1868 with the outbreak of the “Glorious Revolution.” This period can be divided into two parts: the regency (1833-1843) and the queen’s majority (1843-1868). The regencies, shared between Isabella’s mother Maria Cristina and General Espartero, proved crucial in defining the model of 19th-century liberalism in Spain.
During Isabella’s reign, moderate liberalism was implemented, leading to the end of absolutism, feudal property, and legal inequality. The ruling class consisted of the business bourgeoisie, landowners, and the old oligarchies (nobility and clergy), who held significant political power. This period saw economic and administrative modernization and the establishment of a centralized state.
However, the liberal political system was characterized by census suffrage, which marginalized a large portion of the population. Only those with a certain income could participate in political life. The reign was also marked by the emergence of numerous political parties, stemming from the division between absolutists and liberals. The liberals themselves were split into moderate and exalted factions, who alternated in holding political power. The Liberal Union, along with the Democrats, gained prominence during this time. Notably, the military played a significant role, intervening in politics and influencing the country’s direction through pronouncements (Espartero, Narvaez, O’Donnell, Serrano, Prim).
The Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1841)
Following Ferdinand VII’s death, his wife Maria Cristina assumed regency. This period saw the development of the Royal Statute (1834), which declared sovereignty in the hands of the king and established a highly restricted census suffrage (0.15%) and a bicameral parliament (peers and procurators) without a separation of powers. Subsequently, the more progressive Constitution of 1837 was enacted. It declared national sovereignty, established rights such as equality, property, freedom of expression, assembly, and association, and recognized Catholicism as the official religion. It also implemented a separation of powers, census suffrage (2.2%), and a bicameral parliament.
Furthermore, the territorial organization into provinces by Javier de Burgos (1833) and the ecclesiastical confiscation of Mendizábal (1837) took place. The latter involved the sale of Church assets to generate funds after the First Carlist War (1833-1840).
The First Carlist War (1833-1840)
This war pitted supporters of Isabella II against those of Carlos María Isidro, the king’s brother. Carlos did not accept the repeal of the Salic Law, which prohibited women from inheriting the throne, by the Pragmatic Sanction that allowed for Isabella’s birth. The war represented a clash between absolutism, supported by Carlos María Isidro, and moderate liberalism, supported by Isabella II and her mother Maria Cristina. The liberals emerged victorious, leading to the signing of the Agreement of Vergara between General Maroto (Carlist) and Espartero (progressive).
The Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)
The Mutiny of the Farm and disagreements with Maria Cristina forced her resignation, paving the way for the regency of Espartero (1840-1843). In 1842, a violent uprising erupted in Barcelona following a trade agreement with Britain that negatively impacted the Catalan textile industry. Espartero’s order to bombard the city tarnished his reputation, leading to his resignation after a rebellion by progressives and moderates.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
With Isabella II reaching the age of majority at 13, the Moderate Decade (1844-1854) began after Narváez’s pronouncement. This period saw the establishment of a centralized and uniform state with Madrid as its capital. Key actions by the moderates included abolishing the National Militia, creating the Civil Guard, approving a new Municipalities Law that allowed for government-appointed mayors, suspending the sale of Church assets, and enacting the Electoral Law (1846).
A unified legal system was created through the National Codification Commission, and a three-tier education system (primary, secondary, and university) was established. Following the Second Carlist War (1848-1849), a fiscal reform introduced direct and indirect taxes. The Constitution of 1845, reflecting moderate and oligarchic principles, was promulgated. It established shared sovereignty between the king and the Cortes, recognized Catholicism as the state religion, maintained a bicameral parliament, lacked a separation of powers, and retained restricted census suffrage. The Concordat of 1851 restored relations with the Catholic Church, recognizing it as the sole religion and granting it influence over education.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
An attempted constitutional amendment failed, strengthening the Progressive Party. Their revolt in 1854, led by O’Donnell’s Vicalvarada pronouncement and guided by the Manifesto of Manzanares, ushered in the Progressive Biennium (1854-1856). This period saw the general confiscation of Madoz (1855), the Railways Act, and economic liberalization. The Constitution of 1856, though not enacted, reflected progressive ideals, establishing religious tolerance, press freedom, and the supremacy of Congress over the Senate.
New political forces, the Democrats and Republicans, emerged. Social unrest arose due to public debt, excise taxes, and reduced wages. These issues led to another pronouncement by O’Donnell, establishing the Liberal Union government (1856-1863).
The Liberal Union (1856-1863) and the End of Isabella II’s Reign
The Liberal Union government faced political instability, aiming to maintain order amidst a growing labor movement and democratic sentiment. Its foreign policy was marked by the war in Morocco (1859-1860) and interventions in Mexico and Indochina. Internal party divisions and Isabella II’s interference in government affairs led to economic and financial crises and a new authoritarian government.
Following the deaths of O’Donnell and Narváez, Isabella II lost support. The Progressives and Democrats signed the Pact of Ostend, later joined by the Liberal Union, to end her reign. In 1868, Admiral Juan Bautista Topete’s uprising in Cadiz, known as the “Glorious Revolution,” forced Isabella II into exile, ending her reign.
Conclusion
, during the reign of Isabel II there were several reforms due to the alternation of parties in government, which fought against the Carlist to steer the nation to a more liberal system in which citizens have rights and freedoms The king’s power was more or less limited, and implanted the necessary economic and administrative measures to establish capitalism. The moderate government prevailed during the reign, as Queen sees the moderates favored her figure, and protects them. Still, you can not have this new state without the contributions of progressives, including the two confiscations getting a great accomplishment: ending the forms of property own the Old Regime, and the constitutions of 37 and 56 . As we highlight specific features that have influenced aspects of contemporary Spain, as the provincial division of Javier de Burgos or the education system. Also, note that liberalism is implemented in Spain doctrine, as not all proponents of liberalism were really, limiting somewhat freedom. Finally, another characteristic feature of this stage is the intrusion of the military in political life through the pronouncements.