The Reign of Isabel II (1843-1868)

1. The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)

In late 1843, Isabel II (13 years old) showed an inclination towards the moderates, leading progressives to withdraw from elections or support popular uprisings.

In May 1844, General Narvaez formed a government. His first actions were:

  • Abolition of the National Militia and Municipal Councils Act (1845), transferring mayoral appointments to the Administration. This aimed to weaken progressive support.
  • Creation of the Civil Guard (1844), a military force tasked with rural order and property defense against peasant and worker movements.

The Moderate Constitution was adopted in 1845, with key features:

  • Shared sovereignty between king and Parliament, with the Crown dominant.
  • Bicameral Parliament, but the Crown appointed all Senate members.
  • A bill of rights similar to the 1837 Constitution, limited by later laws, especially regarding press freedom.
  • Declaration of Spain as a Catholic nation.

Legislative reforms continued:

  • The 1845 fiscal reform by Minister Alejandro Mon introduced a modern tax system with direct (industrial/commercial) and indirect (tariffs, goods transfer/consumption) taxes.
  • The 1846 Electoral Law established an oligarchy, restricting suffrage to 97,000 men over 25.
  • Debt conversion by Bravo Murillo in 1851 reduced the deficit.
  • The 1851 Concordat with the Vatican validated past seizures, maintained worship and clergy support, and granted the Church educational rights (catechism, religion) and book censorship (“nulla osta” or “imprimatur”).

Social unrest arose in the late 1840s, coinciding with the 1848 European revolutions, met with harsh repression by Narvaez. A Carlist uprising under General Cabrera (1846), limited to the Pyrenees, ended in 1849.

Narvaez resigned in 1851 due to a financial crisis and conflict with the royal clique. Bravo Murillo and Sartorius succeeded him, marking the decline of moderate power, affected by authoritarian rule, lack of judicial oversight, and corruption scandals related to railway construction.

2. The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)

In early 1854, the situation became untenable for the moderates. Economic and social crises, along with their weakened position, led to General Leopoldo O’Donnell’s uprising (the Vicalvarada). Needing broader support, O’Donnell issued the Manifesto of Manzanares, drafted by Cánovas, calling for reforms, restoration of the National Militia, extended suffrage, press and judicial reforms, and decentralization. Progressives and Democrats joined, forming Salvation Boards in cities. Isabel II called upon Espartero to form a government with progressives and moderates, transforming a call for government change into a political revolution.

With O’Donnell at war, Espartero’s government focused on a new constitution and economic modernization.

The unborn Constitution of 1856 outlined liberal principles: national sovereignty, limited monarchy, strengthened judiciary, expanded rights and freedoms, and religious tolerance. A larger electorate would elect deputies and senators.

Economic measures included Pascual Madoz’s confiscation law, selling municipal and other properties, and promoting capitalism through the 1855 Railway Law, credit, banking, and corporate laws.

Instability persisted, worsened by a Carlist uprising (1855-1856), the 1855 agrarian crisis with resulting high prices, and Espartero’s free trade measures, which led to declining textile production and the first general worker’s strike. O’Donnell replaced Espartero mid-1856, restoring order through repression, dissolving the National Militia, halting progressive reforms, and restoring the 1845 Constitution, ending the revolution he initiated.

3. Moderate Interlude (1856-1858)

Disputes between O’Donnell and Isabel II returned the government to Narvaez and the moderates. The key event was the 1857 Moyano Law of Public Education, mandating education from ages 6 to 9. O’Donnell formed a political group uniting left-leaning moderates and progressives. Power shifted between moderates and unionists in the final years of Isabel II’s reign.

4. The “Long” Government of the Liberal Union (1858-1863)

Narvaez’s harsh repression of social unrest from the 1857 agrarian crisis returned power to O’Donnell. Social stability and European economic prosperity led to railway construction and industrial growth through foreign capital. O’Donnell’s focus on restoring international prestige led to interventions in Cochin (1858), Morocco (1859-1869, gaining Ifni and strengthening Ceuta and Melilla), Santo Domingo (annexed 1861-1854), Mexico (1862), and Peru (1863). Conflict between O’Donnell and the queen ended the Liberal Union government.

5. The Moderate Crisis (1863-1868)

Narvaez’s return marked the decline of conservatism and the Crown’s discredit. The political system failed to integrate various political and social trends. Key events included: The Night of San Daniel (1865), sparked by the dismissal of two university professors for criticizing the queen and the subsequent student revolt, resulting in 12 deaths and 200 arrests, creating a rift between intellectuals and moderates. The San Gil Barracks uprising in Madrid (June 1866) resulted in 200 deaths and army opposition to the moderates.

The crisis deepened between 1865 and 1868, increasing opposition to conservatism and the Crown. The Ostend Pact (1866) united progressives, Democrats, and unionists to overthrow the monarchy and end the moderate regime.