The Reign of Ferdinand VII and the Spanish American Wars of Independence

Posted on Oct 26, 2024 in History

The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1813-1833)

Return to Absolutism (1813-1814)

In 1813, absolutist factions prepared for Ferdinand VII’s return as an absolute monarch, despite promises to uphold the 1812 Constitution. Following Napoleon’s defeat, European monarchies convened at the Congress of Vienna (1815) and formed the Holy Alliance to suppress liberal movements. A group of absolutist deputies in Valencia presented a manifesto supporting absolutism, and on May 4, 1814, the King decreed all Cadiz legislation illegal, a move largely unknown to the Spanish populace.

Sexenio Absolutista (1814-1820)

Supported by the Church and landowners, Ferdinand VII repressed liberals, leading to exile and the removal of citizens’ rights and freedoms. The Inquisition was reinstated, and university professors were targeted. Discontent simmered. Non-privileged classes saw the return of jurisdictional rights and properties, but the neglected army plotted against the King (Espoz and Mina, 1814). The stagnant, autarkic economic policy failed to address the war’s devastation, further fueling unrest. On January 1, 1820, Major Riego proclaimed the 1812 Constitution in Seville, gaining support from other soldiers and forcing the King’s acceptance, thus beginning the Liberal Triennium.

Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

The Triennium’s policies were moderate. Treasury reforms aimed to balance the budget. The state was divided into forty-nine provinces to improve tax collection. Freedom of the press and some individual rights were established. The Church’s power was reduced, the Jesuits were expelled, and some monastic orders were dissolved and expropriated. Liberals split into moderate and progressive (exalted or doceanistas) factions. The doceanistas, authors of the 1812 Constitution, favored census suffrage and questioned the Spanish people’s readiness for freedoms. The exalted faction, dissatisfied with the limited reforms, believed negotiation with absolutists was futile and advocated for universal male suffrage, reduced power for the Church and nobility, and a centralized, free, though egalitarian, state. Moderate governments prevailed until 1822, but absolutist conspiracies persisted, supported by the increasingly radicalized King. In 1823, the King backed a coup and sought the Holy Alliance’s aid to restore absolutism. Armed bands supporting absolutism emerged in Catalonia, Basque Country, Navarra, Galicia, and Valencia. Europe reacted to the potential civil war, and the Holy Alliance sent the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, reinstating absolutism without popular resistance.

Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Severe repression against liberals ensued, abolishing political freedoms. Military personnel, teachers, writers, and high-ranking officials were persecuted and exiled. The Church, a staunch ally of the King, justified the repression. A complete return to the Ancien Régime proved impossible. Administratively, a Council of Ministers was created to assist the Crown. Finances were reorganized, accounts consolidated, and a budget implemented to eliminate the deficit. The economy improved with the colonies’ independence, reducing military expenditure. The period remained turbulent. Liberals plotted within the country, including military figures like Espoz and Mina and Torrijos, and members of secret societies like Freemasonry. Exiled liberals also conspired against absolutism. Absolutists grew dissatisfied with the changes and withdrew support from Ferdinand, favoring his heir, Carlos María Isidro. In 1830, Princess Isabella was born, and Ferdinand signed the Pragmatic Sanction, overriding the Salic Law and allowing female rulers. Ferdinand’s death in 1833 left his daughter Isabella II as heir.

The Independence of American Colonies (1808-1820)

Causes

  • Seventeenth-century colonial control by Spain.
  • Eighteenth-century reforms (free trade, peninsular officials) caused Creole discontent.
  • Enlightenment ideas (liberalism, parliamentarism) influenced America.
  • The example of the United States.

This was a Creole class movement, not a popular revolution.

First Stage (1806-1814)

  • Miranda’s attempted invasion of Buenos Aires (1806).
  • The Bayonne abdication led to the formation of defense Juntas in major American cities.
  • Some Juntas declared independence (Caracas in 1811), leading to a near civil war until 1814.

Second Stage (1814-1816)

  • The end of the Peninsular War allowed Spain to quell some rebellions (Hidalgo in Mexico, Bolívar in Venezuela, Francia in Paraguay).
  • Argentina declared independence in 1816.

Third Stage (1816-1824)

  • Bolívar and San Martín liberated Colombia and Chile with British support.
  • The Battle of Ayacucho (1824) secured Peruvian independence, ending Spanish colonial rule.
  • Spain retained Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, the Marianas, and other archipelagos.

Consequences for Spain

  • Loss of essential tax revenue.
  • Loss of privileged trade intermediary status.
  • Decline to a second-order power.

Consequences for America

  • Marginalization of most citizens, benefiting only Creoles.
  • Spanish power replaced by Creole power, with little societal change.
  • Militarism and caudillismo became entrenched, with foreign intervention.
  • Border wars throughout the 19th century.
  • Division into economically dependent states under US or British influence.