The Reign of Ferdinand VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Carlist Wars in 19th Century Spain
The Return of Ferdinand VII and the Absolutist Six Years (1814-1820)
Following the Treaty of Valençay, Fernando VII returned to Spain, rejecting both the treaty and the liberal reforms implemented in Cadiz. The nation faced significant challenges, including a war-ravaged economy, the loss of American colonies, and a deep divide between absolutists and liberals.
Ignoring liberal hopes, Fernando VII refused to swear to the constitution and instead embraced absolutism. The Manifesto of the Persians, signed by absolutist deputies, called for a return to the Ancien Regime. The subsequent coup led to the exile of liberals and the restoration of feudal institutions and the Inquisition.
Economic Crisis and Liberal Uprisings
Spain’s economic crisis, exacerbated by the war in America, weakened Fernando VII’s government. Attempts to reform the treasury were met with resistance from absolutist supporters. Despite repression, liberals continued their efforts, leading to a series of military coups throughout the 19th century.
Lacking popular support, liberals sought alliances with former guerrillas and the bourgeoisie. Masonic lodges and disgruntled military figures participated in several failed uprisings. In 1820, Rafael del Riego led a successful rebellion, forcing Fernando VII to swear to the Constitution of 1812 and ushering in the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823).
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823) and its Aftermath
The Liberal Triennium saw the establishment of a liberal political system, including the release of political prisoners, abolition of the Inquisition, and restoration of constitutional authorities. Reforms focused on freedom of expression, abolition of feudalism, and modernization of trade, industry, and administration.
Divisions emerged within the liberal movement between moderates and radicals, impacting public policy. Moderate governments implemented reforms while attempting to appease the king, suppressing patriotic societies and proposing modifications to the Constitution of 1812.
Despite these efforts, a combination of factors, including conspiracies, royal intrigues, peasant unrest, and international pressure, led to the collapse of the Liberal Triennium. The arrival of the French army of the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis restored Fernando VII to absolute power, initiating the “Ominous Decade” (1823-1833).
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833) and the Rise of Carlism
The Ominous Decade was marked by brutal repression of liberals, leading to the exile of many intellectuals and members of the educated middle class. The absolutist state employed various repressive instruments, including the Superintendent of Police, military commissions, Volunteer Corps, and Boards of Faith.
Despite the return to absolutism, some modernization efforts were undertaken, particularly in finance and administration. However, the loss of American colonies and the rise of Carlist uprisings posed significant challenges.
The birth of Fernando VII’s daughter, Isabella, and the subsequent repeal of the Salic Law through the Pragmatic Sanction, ignited further conflict. Carlists, who supported the old regime and Carlos María Isidro’s claim to the throne, refused to accept Isabella as heir. This ultimately led to the First Carlist War (1833-1840), a clash between two opposing visions of Spanish society.