The Reign of Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and Liberalism in Spain (1814-1833)
1. The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
1.1. The Events of Bayonne
The situation in Spain in March 1808 was unprecedented. Fernando VII was titled King after the Aranjuez riot, which deposed his father, Carlos IV. Napoleon, whose forces had entered the Peninsula thanks to the Treaty of Fontainebleau to attack Portugal, became the arbiter of the dispute. Attracted to Bayonne, Carlos IV and Fernando relinquished to Napoleon the right to dispose of the crown, which he gave to his brother, Joseph I. Trying to appease the Spanish, Napoleon approved a constitutional charter, the Charter of Bayonne, in 1808.
1.2. Development of War
Napoleon considered the Spanish problem solved in Bayonne. But on May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rebelled. The following day, French authorities shot prisoners, causing a wave of general indignation. Popular uprisings spread across the country, led by local and provincial boards, and a Supreme Central Board, which assumed sovereignty in the absence of Ferdinand VII. Some places resisted fiercely (Zaragoza and Gerona), but part of the French army headed for Andalusia was defeated at the Battle of Bailén. Joseph had to leave Madrid. In late 1808, Napoleon himself entered Spain. Most of the peninsula was occupied after the battle of Ocaña (1809). Cádiz, besieged by land but open by sea thanks to the British, became the center of resistance. The Spanish military acquired a twofold character: Guerrillas harassed the French, hindering their supplies and demoralizing them. The Portuguese army, led by the Duke of Wellington and composed of British, Spanish, and Portuguese troops, went on the offensive, winning in 1812 in Arapiles. In 1813, the French retreated and were beaten in Vitoria and San Marcial. To end the war, Napoleon released Fernando and signed the Treaty of Valençay, which stipulated the withdrawal of French troops. The Peninsula was abandoned in 1814.
1.3. Courts of Cadiz
Before adjourning, the Supreme Board called for the Cortes in 1810. At its first meeting, the Cortes of Cadiz, gathered in a single chamber representing the Spanish of both hemispheres (Europeans and Americans), proclaimed national sovereignty. Consistent with this principle, members undertook the drafting of the Constitution. They also adopted legislative decrees guaranteeing press freedom, eliminating the Inquisition and guilds, and establishing freedom of industry and commerce, ending the old regime. Despite the absolutist opposition, which forced some concessions, such as compulsory Catholicism, the Constitution promulgated in March 1812 was markedly liberal and inspired by the principles of the French Revolution. It declared the rights of citizens, recognized Ferdinand VII as king, but limited royal prerogatives and instituted the Salic Law.
2. The “Reign of Ferdinand VII”: Absolutism and Liberalism (1814-1833)
Salic Law: Former French monarchy rule that excluded women from succession to the throne.
Criollo: Of Spanish descent born in America.
Ferdinand, during the Liberal Triennium, accepted the 1812 Constitution: “Let’s frankly march, and I am the first, the constitutional path.”
2.1. Restoration of the Absolute (1814-1820)
The confrontation between liberals and absolutists, which began in Cadiz, culminated in 1814 when Ferdinand VII returned from exile. Absolutists handed him a document (known as the Manifesto of the Persians) asking him to abolish the Constitution. The army offered him support, and he pronounced himself against the Constitution in the first coup d’état in the history of Spain. With this support, he suspended the Constitution and declared void all the acts of the Cortes, reinstating the Old Regime. Many liberals went into exile, but others conspired and organized in secret societies. They led several pronouncements, which were always severely repressed.
2.2. The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, Rafael del Riego, commanding a battalion destined for America, pronounced in favor of the Constitution of 1812. After months of uncertainty, the king had to yield and obey the Constitution. However, Ferdinand VII intrigued from day one to recover absolutism. Taking advantage of the powers granted by the Constitution, he hampered the action of the Cortes while secretly dividing the Liberals into two trends: the doceañistas, more moderate and willing to compromise, and the exaltados, more radical. The king also requested the intervention of the absolutist powers that formed the Holy Alliance. The Congress of these powers, suspicious of the Spanish liberal regime, decided to intervene, and in 1823, the French army, the so-called Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, invaded Spain.
Gisbert, A.: Execution of Torrijos (1888). Museo del Prado. In 1823, the King managed to restore absolutism and retaliated against the Liberals. “That they shoot them all” is the sentence attributed to Ferdinand VII.
2.3. The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
After a brief campaign, the constitutional regime collapsed, and Fernando VII regained all his royal prerogatives. The second restoration, even harsher than the first, raged against the Liberals. Those not executed were exiled, like Riego, the hero of the War of Independence. He declared the work of the Cortes invalid and established absolutism. However, the radicalization of the absolutists was so great that some ultras considered the king too mild. The disgruntled supported the Infante Carlos María Isidro, the king’s brother and heir apparent, since the king had no children. The king’s fourth marriage in 1829 and the birth of a daughter, Isabel, created a conflict between the supporters of Isabel and the Infante Don Carlos. The situation reached a breaking point when, in 1830, Fernando VII abolished the Salic Law, thus facilitating the access of his daughter to the throne.