The Reign of Charles V: Imperial Power and Conflicts
Charles V (1517-1556)
Imperial Resistance to Power
Upon his arrival in Castile, Charles V (1517-1556) was met with suspicion. The Cortes of Valladolid in 1518 pledged him as sovereign but requested that the king cease the appointment of foreigners, not allow the output of precious metals from Castile, and learn to deal with his mother with due consideration. His acceptance by the Aragonese Cortes proved more difficult, but they ultimately yielded. Following the death of his grandfather, Maximilian, in 1519, Charles was elected to the imperial throne. To secure the votes, he had to rely on German banking loans and Castilian subsidies. In 1520, courts were convened in Santiago de Compostela, and after protests from prosecutors, the meeting moved to La Coruña. After the Bishop of Badajoz, Pedro Mota, presented the imperial agenda, it obtained approval for the subsidies required for Charles V’s travel to Germany.
The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521)
When Charles V departed for Germany, he left Adrian of Utrecht as regent. Discontent was widespread. In 1520, the Community of Toledo rose up, and Zamora, Segovia, Toro, Salamanca, Avila, Madrid, and other cities joined the movement. The Revolt of the Comuneros soon took shape as an anti-absolutist movement and a protest against the powers of the nobility. With a reformist agenda (establishing a permanent Board of municipalities, tax cuts, or removal of magistrates), the commoners organized the Holy Junta of Avila, with Pedro Lazo de la Vega as president and Juan Padilla, Pedro Maldonado, and Juan Bravo as military leaders. They achieved some victories, including the capture of Tordesillas, where they offered the crown to Juana la Loca, but she refused. Charles V appointed Admiral Enriquez and the Constable, Iñigo de Velasco, as collaborators of Adrian of Utrecht. Ultimately, the commoners were defeated at Villalar in 1521, and their military leaders were executed. From then on, Castile became more amenable to the monarchy.
Revolt of the Germanies
In the Levantine territories, the Revolt of the Germanies emerged. In 1520, an epidemic struck the city of Valencia. The nobles left the city, and Adrian of Utrecht ordered the disbanding of the city’s militias. However, they disobeyed and declared themselves in rebellion. Within days, the movement spread throughout the rest of the kingdom and the Balearic Islands. After the defeat of the commoners, the royal army ended the Germanies and levied heavy taxes on the rebel cities.
Imperial Ideas
Charles V devoted all his efforts to shaping a Christian empire, which had different conceptions throughout his reign. Initially, under the direction of Mercurino Gattinara, it appeared linked to the humanist ideal of his time, and later as the Universitas Christiana, in the manner of the old Holy Roman Empire, whose crown he wore.
The War Against France
Disputes over Burgundy and other Central European territories led to confrontations between the Emperor and King Francis I of France. The first war arose in 1521 over possession of the Duchy of Milan. The victory at Pavia in 1525, where Francis I was captured, gave Charles V control of the duchy. In the subsequent Treaty of Madrid (1526), France relinquished its territories in Italy and Navarre, and promised to return Burgundy to the Emperor, a promise that was ultimately not kept. The war against Charles V resumed. The Pope formed the League of Cognac with Milan, Venice, and France. In 1529, they signed the Peace of Cambrai, which ratified the agreement in Madrid, although Charles V renounced his claim to Burgundy.
Conflict in Germany
Initially, Charles V maintained an attitude of dialogue and conciliation with Luther. The Diets of Worms (1521) and Speyer (1526) made virtually no progress in the dialogue between Luther and the Church. In a concession to the Lutherans, at the same Diet of Speyer, Charles V authorized the establishment of territorial Lutheran churches. In 1530, the Diet of Augsburg rejected the conditions of Speyer. The rupture between the Emperor and the Lutherans, who were grouped under the Schmalkaldic League, was complete. Also in 1530, Charles V received the Imperial Crown in Bologna from the Pope, and his troops repelled the Ottoman advance on the Danube near Vienna.
Imperial Policy from 1530
Between 1530 and 1543, the Emperor focused his efforts on the Mediterranean, where the Ottoman presence posed a danger to the Christian kingdoms. This resulted in the conquest of Tunis in 1535. After resuming the war with France (1536) and signing a peace treaty (Truce of Nice, 1538), the Emperor returned to campaign in Algiers in 1541, but the attempt failed. A fourth war with France broke out (1542), but he was forced to sign the Peace of Crépy (1544). Afterward, Charles V went to war against the Schmalkaldic League and achieved victory at Mühlberg in 1547. The Diet of Augsburg (1547) reaffirmed the Emperor’s authority over the German princes, but they launched a counteroffensive and surprised Charles V in Innsbruck. In 1552, in Nassau, the Emperor granted amnesty to the German princes, and in 1555, he signed the Peace of Augsburg, granting princes the right to embrace the religion of their choice.
Finally, on January 15, 1556, Charles V abdicated in Brussels in favor of his son, Philip II, and died in the Monastery of Yuste in 1558.