The Reign of Charles IV and the Spanish Independence War
The Reign of Charles IV (1788-1808)
Godoy and the French Revolution
King Charles IV appointed Manuel de Godoy as Prime Minister. Following the execution of Louis XVI in France, Spain broke its alliance with the country and participated in the War of the First Coalition (1793-1797).
The war generally favored France, whose armies advanced into the Basque Country and Catalonia, seizing control of parts of these territories. Spain’s defeat culminated in the signing of the Peace of Basel in 1795. This treaty ceded part of Santo Domingo to France and reinstated the alliance between Spain and France against Great Britain through the Treaty of San Ildefonso (1796).
Napoleon and Growing French Influence
The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, coupled with the weakness of the Spanish government, led to Spain’s increasing dependence on France. Despite the losses incurred by Spain due to this alliance, Godoy persisted and signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1807. This treaty granted French military troops passage through Spain to invade Portugal.
The Spanish Independence War (1808-1814)
The Aranjuez Mutiny and Abdications of Bayonne
French troops in Spain began to act as an occupying force. Godoy planned to relocate the Spanish Royal Family to Andalusia, but his plans were thwarted by the Aranjuez Mutiny in 1808. This uprising, orchestrated by Prince Ferdinand, led to Godoy’s dismissal and Charles IV’s abdication in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
Napoleon summoned both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to Bayonne, France. There, he pressured them into abdicating in his favor. Napoleon then bestowed the Spanish crown upon his brother, Joseph Bonaparte.
Resistance to Joseph Bonaparte and the Bayonne Statute
In an attempt to appease Spanish liberals, Joseph Bonaparte implemented the Bayonne Statute, a constitution that granted more freedoms than the previous absolutist regime, including freedom of the press, freedom of commerce, and an equitable tax system.
A small group of Spanish liberals known as afrancesados collaborated with Joseph I, believing him to be the best ruler for Spain. However, the Bayonne Statute failed to gain widespread support. Most Spaniards rejected the foreign king, sparking the Spanish Independence War against France.
Outbreak of War and the Formation of Juntas
As the French invasion became imminent, the people of Madrid revolted against the French on May 2, 1808. This uprising quickly spread throughout the country, marking the beginning of the Spanish Independence War (1808-1814).
With the monarchy effectively overthrown, Provincial Juntas were established to combat the French invaders. These Juntas assumed sovereignty in the name of the absent king. They later united to form the Central Junta. Although initially composed mainly of supporters of the Old Regime, the war’s exigencies compelled them to adopt revolutionary measures, including the convening of the Cortes.
Spanish Resistance and Guerrilla Warfare
The Spanish forces achieved notable victories against the French, such as the Battle of Bailén in 1808. Napoleon himself arrived in Spain to oversee the conflict. However, Spanish guerrillas, operating in mountainous terrain, began to inflict heavy losses on the French.
The French army, aided by the afrancesados, faced relentless guerrilla warfare waged by former soldiers and civilians. This resistance movement received crucial support from the British Army, which had become Spain’s ally.
Wellington’s Victories and the Treaty of Valencay
British General Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, in coordination with Spanish and Portuguese forces, inflicted a series of defeats upon the French. These victories culminated in the Battle of San Marcial in 1813. A weakened Napoleon agreed to return the Spanish crown to Ferdinand VII in the Treaty of Valencay (1813). French troops withdrew from Spain, marking the end of the Independence War.
The Cadiz Cortes and the Constitution of 1812
The Power Vacuum and the Rise of the Juntas
The Bayonne Abdications created a power vacuum in Spain. To coordinate the fight against the French, Provincial Juntas emerged, assuming local authority.
In 1808, the Provincial Juntas formed the Central Junta, which assumed regency in the absence of a legitimate king. The Junta Central relocated to the city of Cadiz, which was under the protection of the British navy.
The Cortes of Cadiz and the Call for a Constitution
The Cortes of Cadiz, convened in 1810, became a focal point for revolutionary change. This representative body drafted Spain’s first constitution, which was promulgated in 1812.
The Constitution of 1812 “La Pep”)
Approved on March 19, 1812, the Constitution of 1812, nicknamed”La Pepa” established Spain’s first liberal constitution. Its key principles included:
- National sovereignty: Power resides in the nation.
- Separation of powers: Legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
- Universal male suffrage: Voting rights for men over 25.
- Constitutional monarchy: The king’s power is limited by a constitution.
- Catholicism as the official religion: Other religions were not tolerated.
- Abolition of the Inquisition.
Ferdinand VII’s Return and the Abolition of the Constitution
Upon his return to Spain in 1814, Ferdinand VII, determined to rule as an absolute monarch, immediately abolished the Constitution of 1812 and restored the Old Regime. The constitution was only briefly reinstated during the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823).
The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)
Ferdinand VII’s Restoration and the Absolutist Six Years (1814-1820)
Following the Treaty of Valencay, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain and promptly dissolved the Cortes of Cadiz. He nullified all of its legislation, including the Constitution of 1812, and re-established absolutism.
The economic situation in Spain was dire after the war. However, Ferdinand VII made no effort to implement tax reforms to improve the state’s finances. He also purged the afrancesados, forcing them to flee the country.
Many military officers, influenced by liberal ideas, participated in pronunciamientos (military uprisings) in an attempt to compel the king to change his policies.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, a successful pronunciamiento led by Rafael del Riego forced Ferdinand VII to accept the Constitution of 1812. This ushered in a three-year period of liberal rule known as the Liberal Triennium.
However, the liberals were divided into two main factions:
- Doceañistas (Moderates): Favored granting more power to the king.
- Veinteañistas (Progressives): Advocated for the strict implementation of the constitution.
This division among the liberals resulted in significant political instability.
The Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis and the End of the Liberal Triennium
Following Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, the major European powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, France) formed the Holy Alliance. They agreed to intervene in any country where liberal or revolutionary movements threatened the established order.
In 1823, at the behest of the Holy Alliance, a French army, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, invaded Spain. They easily defeated the liberal forces and restored Ferdinand VII to absolute power, ending the Liberal Triennium.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
Upon his second restoration, Ferdinand VII unleashed a wave of repression, targeting liberals and anyone suspected of opposing his rule. This period, known as the Ominous Decade, witnessed the persecution of politicians, civil servants, military officers, and intellectuals. Thousands of Spaniards fled into exile.
The Succession Crisis and the Carlist Wars
Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833 triggered a succession crisis. The king had abolished the Salic Law, which prevented women from inheriting the throne, and named his daughter, Isabella, as his heir. However, his brother, Carlos Maria Isidro, challenged Isabella’s claim, invoking the Salic Law.
This dispute ignited the First Carlist War (1833-1839), pitting the Carlists (supporters of Carlos Maria Isidro) against the Isabelinos (supporters of Isabella II). The Carlist Wars, marked by their violence and ideological divisions, would continue to plague Spain for decades.