The Reign of Charles IV and the Spanish Crisis
1. The Reign of Charles IV and the Decline of the Monarchy
Charles IV’s reign was marked by the influence of Manuel Godoy, a young military officer who gained the absolute trust of the monarch. This appointment reflected the distrust Charles IV had towards the nobility and his desire to find someone he could rely on. During this time, Spain’s politics were subordinated to the interests of France. The rise of Napoleon put Spain in a difficult position, hesitant to confront the French emperor. Spain’s alliance with France led to a conflict with Britain, which sought to maintain its maritime dominance. The defeat of the Franco-Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 resulted in a crisis for the royal treasury. Godoy’s attempts to address the financial problems through measures such as land reforms and increased taxes provoked widespread opposition from the nobility and the Church. His inability to resolve the crisis led to growing discontent and accusations against him.
The Mutiny of Aranjuez
Napoleon and Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which authorized French armies to enter Spain and attack Portugal, Britain’s ally. The treaty included a secret clause for the future division of Portugal between France and Spain. French troops crossed the Pyrenees and occupied strategic locations like Barcelona and Madrid. On March 18, 1808, a riot broke out in Aranjuez, demanding the dismissal of Godoy and the abdication of Charles IV in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. The goals of the rioters were achieved, but the monarchy was plunged into a deep crisis. Charles IV wrote to Napoleon, seeking his help in recovering the throne from his son. Napoleon summoned both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to Bayonne, where they were forced to abdicate. Napoleon then appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain.
2. Popular Revolt and the Formation of Juntas
The Uprising of May 2nd, 1808
On May 2, 1808, while the royal family was preparing to leave for Bayonne, a crowd gathered at the palace to prevent their departure. This spontaneous uprising against the French presence was suppressed by General Murat. In several cities, the population rose up against the French invasion, taking up arms and forming defense groups. Local personalities, mostly supporters of Ferdinand VII (clerics, soldiers, nobles), formed the first juntas. The need for coordination led to the creation of provincial juntas, which assumed sovereignty in the absence of the king, declared war on Napoleon, and sought the support of Britain. Representatives from the juntas met in Aranjuez, taking advantage of the French withdrawal from Madrid after their defeat at Bailén, to form the Supreme Central Junta, which coordinated the fight against the French and directed the country’s affairs. Faced with the French advance, the Junta moved to Seville and then to Cadiz, the only city that resisted the French siege.
Resistance: Sieges and Guerrillas
Napoleon had believed that the invasion would be swift, but the resistance of cities like Girona and Zaragoza, which withstood long sieges, hunger, and bombardments, slowed down the French advance. The Spanish victory at Bailén prevented the conquest of Andalusia and forced Joseph Bonaparte to abandon Madrid. Napoleon himself had to lead the counteroffensive, which took four weeks to retake Madrid. As the traditional Spanish army could not defeat the French, a new form of popular and effective armed struggle emerged: the guerrillas. Composed of farmers, artisans, and students, the guerrillas harassed the French army with surprise attacks, destroying infrastructure and disrupting supply convoys. When Napoleon launched his campaign against Russia in 1812, he was forced to withdraw troops from Spain. The Spanish troops, with the support of the guerrillas and General Wellington, achieved victory at Arapiles. Joseph Bonaparte left Madrid, and the city was taken by Wellington. Napoleon, weakened, negotiated the end of the conflict and allowed the return of Ferdinand VII (Treaty of Valençay).
Political and Ideological Attitudes
A minority of Spaniards, known as afrancesados (officials, intellectuals, high nobility), collaborated with the monarchy of Joseph Bonaparte. They were linked to the reformist program and advocated for a strong power to modernize Spain. The majority of the population, forming the Patriotic Front, opposed the invasion. Most of the clergy and nobility sought the return of absolutism under Ferdinand VII, defending tradition and religion and rejecting any social change. Some enlightened individuals believed that with the return of Ferdinand VII, a program of reforms and modernization could be undertaken under the existing regime. Liberals (bourgeoisie, professionals) saw the war as an opportunity for a change in the political system, aiming to establish a liberal political system in Spain.
3. The Cortes of Cadiz
The Supreme Central Junta proved incapable of directing the war effort and decided to dissolve itself. However, before doing so, it initiated the process of convening the Cortes to represent the nation and decide on its organization and future. While the Cortes were being assembled, a five-member Regency was formed to organize a consultation with the country through the town councils, which would carry out the election process for the Cortes. The elections were difficult due to the ongoing war. The liberal influence was strong in the cities, and some candidates sympathetic to these ideas were elected. The Cortes opened in 1810, and the liberal sector achieved its first victory by forcing the creation of a single chamber. In the first session, the principle of national sovereignty was adopted, recognizing that power resides in all citizens, represented in the Cortes.
The Constitution of 1812
The Constitution of 1812 included a bill of rights for citizens: freedom of thought and opinion, equality of Spaniards before the law, right of petition, freedom of movement, recognition of property rights, and the legitimate rights of all individuals comprising the Spanish nation. The nation was defined as the whole of all citizens of both hemispheres: the Iberian Peninsula and the American colonies. The structure of the state was defined as a limited monarchy based on the division of powers. The legislative power, residing in the Cortes, elaborated laws, approved budgets, and ratified international treaties. Suffrage was indirect and universal for men. The monarch was the head of the executive power, appointed the government, intervened in the elaboration of laws, and administered justice. The courts were established as the only interpreters of the law.
Legislative Action of the Cortes
The Cortes of Cadiz adopted a series of laws and decrees aimed at dismantling the Old Regime and establishing a liberal state. They abolished the feudal jurisdictions, making a distinction between territorial jurisdiction, which was to become private property of the lords, and agrarian reform, which transformed the old feudal estates into private property. The abolition of primogeniture and the confiscation of communal and Church lands were also decreed, with the aim of reducing the public debt. The abolition of the Inquisition was voted, despite strong opposition from absolutists and the clergy, as well as freedom of the press. Finally, it is important to highlight the freedom of trade unions and the unification of the national market. This first liberalism marked the basic lines for the modernization of Spain. The legislators of Cadiz took advantage of the revolutionary situation created by the war to develop a legislative framework much more advanced than would have been possible in a normal situation. The return of Ferdinand VII frustrated the liberal experience and led to the return of absolutism.
4. The Restoration of Absolutism
Ferdinand VII, fearing confrontation with those who had resisted the invasion for six years, initially agreed to accept a new political framework. However, upon his return, he saw the opportunity to undo everything that had been achieved in Cadiz and restore the Old Regime. Through the Royal Decree of May 4, 1814, Ferdinand VII annulled the Constitution and the laws of Cadiz and announced the return to absolutism. The monarchy proceeded to restore all the institutions of the Old Regime, including the Inquisition. Ferdinand VII and his government attempted an impossible goal: to rebuild a country shattered by war, with a paralyzed agriculture, ruined finances, and through the restoration of the Old Regime. Their governments were unsuccessful. The human and material losses, the ruin of the farmers, the interruption of trade, and the decline of manufacturing led to the bankruptcy of the treasury. To these problems were added the changes in the mentality of many social groups. Farmers stopped paying feudal rents. The integration of former guerrilla fighters into the army and the emergence of a liberal sector supporting reforms led to several uprisings. Ferdinand VII’s governments were incapable of responding to the problems, straightening out the finances, or preventing the independence movements in the colonies. Military pronouncements, riots in the cities, and peasant revolts reflected the discontent and the failure of the absolute monarchy. Repression was the only response of the monarchy to the political and social demands.
The Liberal Triennium
Colonel Rafael del Riego led a revolt in Andalusia, proclaiming the Constitution of 1812. The passivity of the army, the actions of liberals in major cities, and the neutrality of the peasants forced the king to accept the Constitution. Ferdinand VII immediately formed a new government and called for elections to the Cortes. The election results favored the liberals, who quickly began an important legislative work, restoring most of the reforms of Cadiz. They also encouraged industry and trade, began to modernize the country’s political and administrative structure by forming elective town councils and provincial councils, and developed a national militia as an armed body of volunteers. All these reforms provoked the rapid rise of opposition to the monarchy. Ferdinand VII, forced by circumstances, accepted the new regime but from the beginning obstructed legislation, resorting to the powers granted to him by the Constitution and conspiring against the government, seeking to recover his absolute power through the intervention of the Holy Alliance. The new measures of the Liberal Triennium caused discontent among the farmers. There was no reduction in taxes, and the end of the monetization of tithes, previously paid with agricultural products, forced farmers to obtain money by selling their products. In a self-sufficient economy, it was difficult to sell products cheaply and collect the money needed to pay the new taxes. This led to increased poverty and vulnerability for farmers under the new capitalist legislation, fueling unrest and opposition to the liberal reforms. The Church and the traditional nobility, harmed by the elimination of tithes and the sale of monastic properties, led a revolt against the liberal governments of the Triennium. Revolts broke out in Andalusia, Navarre, and Galicia. There were also tensions among the liberals themselves, who were divided into two groups: the moderates (supporters of limited reforms that did not harm the social elite, nobility, and bourgeoisie) and the exalted (who advocated for radical reforms, favoring the middle and popular classes).
The Ominous Decade
The Holy Alliance heeded Ferdinand VII’s requests and entrusted France with intervening in Spain. An army of 100,000 men (the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis), commanded by the Duke of Angoulême, entered Spanish territory and restored Ferdinand VII to full power. The restoring powers intended to introduce very moderate reforms. However, Ferdinand VII did not accept these requests and unleashed a fierce repression against the liberals. The monarchy’s greatest concern was the worsening economic problem. The difficulties of the treasury and the definitive loss of the American colonies forced strict control of public spending. The king, pressured by economic problems, sought the collaboration of the moderate sectors of the financial and industrial bourgeoisie of Madrid and Barcelona. This attitude increased distrust among the royalists and the extremist sectors of the court, who were already dissatisfied with the monarch for not having restored the Inquisition.
The Dynastic Conflict
The birth of the king’s daughter, Isabella, seemed to guarantee the continuity of the Bourbon dynasty. However, it gave rise to a serious conflict over the succession to the throne. The Salic Law, of French origin and implemented in Spain by Philip V, prevented women from inheriting the throne. But Ferdinand VII, influenced by his wife Maria Cristina, promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction, which paved the way for his daughter Isabella to become queen. The Carlists, supporters of the king’s brother, Carlos, refused to accept the new situation and pressured the seriously ill king to reinstate the Salic Law, which would benefit Carlos as the candidate to the throne. The forces supporting Prince Carlos were mostly inclined towards the Old Regime and opposed to any form of liberalism. Maria Cristina, appointed regent during the king’s illness, formed a new government of a reformist character, decreed an amnesty that allowed the return of liberal exiles, and prepared to confront the Carlists. In 1833, Ferdinand VII died, confirming his will to make his three-year-old daughter Isabella queen and appointing Maria Cristina as regent until she reached the age of majority. Prince Carlos was proclaimed king by his supporters, and an absolutist insurrection began in northern Spain, marking the beginning of the First Carlist War.