The Regency of Maria Cristina and the Carlist Wars in Spain

Posted on Oct 22, 2024 in History

The Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840) and the Carlist Problem

Regency of Maria Cristina of Bourbon

The reign begins with the instruction to Bermúdez Cea to form the first government, characterized by timid reformism with administrative reforms and a new provincial division by Javier de Burgos.

The next government is formed by Martínez de la Rosa with the mission to provide the State with a useful tool for government tasks, developing the Royal Statute of 1834. This charter, granted by the monarchy, envisioned a very limited parliamentary system: it did not recognize national sovereignty, but rather a shared one, did not contemplate the division of powers, had no voting rights, and was very restrictive. The defense by some and rejection by others deepened the division between moderate and progressive liberals.

In June 1835, the Count of Toreno is commissioned to form a new government. The rejection of the Statute and the Carlist victory in war lead to the formation of wide opposition to the conservative regime, ending in riots, formation of boards and militias, incidents in Barcelona, and requests to the regent in Andalusia and Madrid. The monarchy needs to expand its social support and open doors for a progressive government.

The government is entrusted to Mendizábal in September 1835, reforming the electoral law and initiating the Confiscation of ecclesiastical goods. The response was immediate pressure from those affected, leading to the dismissal of Mendizábal. However, after a coup, the Mutiny of the Sergeants of La Granja allows the return of the progressives.

The liberal government of José María Calatrava (August 1836 to December 1837), with Mendizábal as finance minister, has three areas of action: the transformation of the legal and property regime abolishing the manorial regime, the liberalization of the economy, and the creation of the Constitution of 1837.

The Land Confiscation

With the land confiscation, the lord becomes the new owner and the farmer becomes a laborer. In the process, the farmer cannot buy the land they work but must go to auction. The consequences of the confiscation are twofold: in the short term, it provides war funding and support to the state, while in the long term, part of the Church and farmers join Carlism, abruptly changing the social base.

The Constitution of 1837

The Constitution of 1837, with a progressive character but with concessions to the moderates, has the following basic characteristics: national sovereignty, separation of powers, and census suffrage.

  • Rights and progressive principles initiated by Mendizábal, but a secular State.
  • Conservative aspects: bicameral courts, the Crown retains much power, and a very limited census suffrage system.

Calatrava falls in August 1837, and the moderates regain power in September. The government remains in the hands of moderate liberals until 1840. Meanwhile, the municipalities are in the hands of progressives (municipal elections had universal suffrage), contributing to a general climate of instability. This leads to the Municipal Law being amended so that mayors are appointed by the Crown.

The Fall of Maria Cristina and the Espartero Regency

The fall of Maria Cristina was swift. The measure represents a setback for the most progressive liberals. Protests are widespread, and the queen presents her resignation to Espartero. Maria Cristina (also stifled by personal problems) refuses to accept it and goes into exile after October 12, 1840. The Regency is now in the hands of Espartero, who participated in the War of Independence, but his reputation came from his “victory” over the Carlists. His progressive ideas came late; in fact, he had clear authoritarian tendencies.

Espartero Regency (1840-1843). The Espartero Regency can be classified as a resounding failure. During this period, the confiscation of church property accelerated, and the privileges of the Basque Country and Navarra were curtailed. The signing of a free trade agreement with England sparked large protests in Barcelona that were harshly suppressed and even bombed. The armed attack on the city led Espartero to lose all his popularity, even among progressives. His government, led by Joaquin Maria Lopez, presented a program of limiting government power and defending the constitution, which Espartero does not accept and forces his resignation. Espartero is characterized by authoritarianism, does not adapt to peacetime, and rules outside the courts, which brings him many problems.

The problems do not end there. Former military discontent and Carlists coalesce in a pronouncement led by the ex-regent from Paris. It is suppressed by executing the leaders, leaving Espartero’s authoritarian nature clear. The organization of the moderate opposition achieves Espartero’s resignation and exile in London.

The First Decade of Liberalism in Spain

The first ten years of liberalism in Spain can be summarized as follows:

  • Moderates try to monopolize power with the help and collaboration of the monarchy.
  • Liberals take the path of uprisings to govern.
  • With progressives in power, moderate plots will occur that deepen the internal divisions of progressivism.

To get out of the political impasse in which the country found itself, the new authorities accelerated, despite her being only fourteen years old, the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.

The Carlist Problem: The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

The origins of the civil war lie in the succession problem triggered by the abolition of the Salic Law. The Pragmatic Sanction allows his daughter Isabel to inherit the throne and prevents the access of Carlos María Isidro. He is proclaimed king by his followers, giving rise to two opposing sides. However, the dynastic question is only one argument in the struggle between two very different conceptions of society and the state.

  • The option of the reign of his daughter Isabel and the regency of Maria Cristina was to open the door to more or less liberal reforms.
  • The option of the reign of Carlos María Isidro, supported by advocates of the Old Regime, such as the traditional nobility, clergy, ruined artisans, and impoverished peasants. This is a very heterogeneous side but united by fear and prejudice against the development of urban life and a system of rights and freedoms that go against traditions, with the Catholic religion playing an important role. The Carlist ideology is based on an absolute monarchy, the Catholic Church, and the provincial system. Most of the support is in rural areas, but the Convention of Vergara demonstrates that the powers of the northern provinces are not incompatible with the liberal state. During this period, the Carlist uprisings are very virulent and destabilizing in the areas where they occur, but they do not manage to impose themselves in cities, where support for the ruling power continues.

The side that remains faithful to the monarchy is also heterogeneous, finding absolutists, moderates, moderate liberals, urban classes, etc., who do not want to return to the Old Regime but impose limits on economic and social development.

Development of the War

1st phase: Carlist offensive (1833-1835). Carlist groups are formed in rural areas, while the capital remains loyal to the Crown. This is an irregular army, normally guerrillas, with much popular support and collaboration. The Carlist leader Zumalacárregui fails to take Bilbao and manages to unify command with Cabrera in Aragon and Catalonia.

2nd phase: large military expeditions (1836). Carlos María Isidro organizes a large army and marches on Madrid but fails. Espartero triumphs in the defense of Bilbao, with the support of the British fleet, and obtains an important victory in Luchana.

3rd phase: Carlist inferiority and end of the war (1837-1840). The Carlists begin to suffer the consequences of the change of tide in the war. Foreign aid does not materialize, and they do not obtain significant social support. An internal division opens between those who want to seek a negotiated solution and those who want to fight to the end. Espartero and Maroto agree to the cessation of hostilities in 1839 with the Convention of Vergara. Cabrera resists until 1840.

Balance

The war left 200,000 dead. The harshness of the conflict is due to its characteristic as a civil war. Among the positive aspects is the ability to reach agreements that allow for satisfactory solutions. The peace agreements are respected, except for a small radical minority. Other consequences are the monarchy’s inclination towards liberalism, the political role of the military, and the enormous costs of the war.

Emergence of Political Parties

  • The Moderate Party, led by General Narváez, is based on large landowners, the high bourgeoisie, and the upper middle class, defending shared sovereignty between the king and parliament. They were the most conservative liberals.
  • The Progressive Party, led by General Espartero, is supported by the middle classes, employees, and artisans. They defend national sovereignty, represented in Parliament, which should limit the king’s power.
  • The Democratic Party is supported by the working classes and intellectuals. They defend national sovereignty, advocate for universal suffrage, and oppose the monarchy of Isabel II, demanding expanded freedoms and rights.