The Regency of Maria Cristina and the 1868 Revolution: A Tumultuous Era in Spanish History
The Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840)
During Isabel II’s minority, the outbreak of war and the need for support led to the appointment of the moderate Martínez de la Rosa as Prime Minister. An amnesty allowed exiles to return, press freedom was limited, and the national militia was re-established. The Royal Statute, governing the convening of a conservative and elitist Cortes, limited voting and granted the crown legislative and dissolution powers. Parliamentary debates saw moderate and radical factions clash over reforms and the 1812 Constitution. The moderate government, facing economic problems and Carlist incursions, eventually gave way to a progressive government appointed by the regent.
Crisis and the End of Isabel II’s Reign
Governmental erosion and divisions within the Liberal Union led to O’Donnell’s resignation, followed by a series of unstable governments. The crisis stemmed from a severe economic downturn, including railway company bankruptcies, textile mill collapses, European market cracks, and poor harvests. Events like the Night of St. Daniel (1865), with police firing on students, and the San Gil Uprising, a pronunciamiento attempt by progressives led by Prim, further destabilized the monarchy. Progressives, Democrats, and Republicans formed the Pact of Ostend, aiming to overthrow Isabel II and establish universal suffrage.
The Constitution of 1876
The Constitutional Process
Elections for the Constituent Cortes, convened in 1875 with universal male suffrage, resulted in a conservative majority led by Cánovas.
Characteristics
The Constitution synthesized elements of the moderate 1845 Constitution (shared sovereignty) and the democratic 1869 Constitution (individual rights, religious tolerance). It maintained a centralized state model with flexibility in areas like the electoral system. It also reflected compromises on ideological principles, such as accepting the Bourbon monarchy and tolerating non-Catholic religions.
Fundamental Lines
- Shared Sovereignty: Power resided with the Cortes and the King.
- Division of Powers: The King held executive power, appointed officials, controlled foreign relations and the army, and acted as a moderator between parties. The Cortes held legislative power.
- Bicameral System: The Cortes comprised the Senate (life senators, appointed members, and elected representatives) and the Congress (elected members). The electoral system, initially census suffrage under conservatives, later shifted to universal male suffrage under liberals.
- Individual Rights: A broad statement of rights was practically limited by restrictive laws.
- Religious Sphere: Catholicism was the state religion, but other religions were tolerated.
- Centralized State: Uniform civil and penal codes were implemented, abolishing fueros.
The 1868 Revolution (The Glorious Revolution)
Causes
The revolution arose from a confluence of factors: financial and industrial crises, international economic downturns, food shortages, and political corruption.
Preparation and Execution
Opposition parties, unable to gain power legally, initiated a revolutionary movement (Pact of Ostend) with military support to overthrow Isabel II, who was forced into exile.
Provisional Government
A provisional government upheld freedoms of press and education, established universal suffrage, and adopted the peseta as the currency.
Consequences of 1898
While not a major political or economic crisis, the loss of the Spanish-American War had profound consequences:
Moral and Ideological Crisis
The war’s psychological impact led to disillusionment and frustration, shattering the myth of the Spanish empire. It exposed political corruption and ineffectiveness.
Modernization of Spain and Regenerationism
The Regenerationist movement emerged, advocating political, economic, and social modernization to Europeanize Spain.
Economic Impact
Despite colonial market losses and war debts, the economy did not collapse, partly due to repatriated Cuban capital.
Political Impact
Nationalist movements grew, particularly in the Basque Country and Catalonia. Dynastic parties struggled to implement reforms, and the labor movement radicalized. Conservative governments attempted decentralization and tax reforms, but faced resistance. The political system proved adaptable, hindering regeneration efforts.
Cultural Implications
Regenerationist currents emphasized abandoning past myths, modernizing the economy, and promoting literacy. They also advocated dismantling the cacique system and ensuring electoral transparency. The “Generation of ’98” expressed pessimism and criticized Spain’s backwardness.
Effect on the Army and Popular Classes
The military adopted more authoritarian positions, seeing themselves as guarantors of national unity against rising nationalisms. Popular discontent grew over colonial wars and the recruitment system.