The Protestant Reformation: Europe’s Religious Transformation
The Protestant Reformation: 16th Century Impact
The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement which began in the first half of the 16th century. It instigated the division of the Christian Church and the founding of Protestant churches.
Causes of the Protestant Reformation
Several factors contributed to the onset of the Reformation:
- The low clergy’s lack of training.
- The bad example set by the high clergy.
- The Church’s immense wealth.
- The buying and selling of ecclesiastical positions.
- The controversial sale of indulgences.
Martin Luther’s Break from Rome
The German monk, Martin Luther, was scandalized by the amount of corruption in the Church. He published his 95 Theses, criticizing the sale of indulgences and other questionable practices carried out by the ecclesiastical hierarchy. This marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
Luther’s Core Principles and Teachings
Luther developed his ideas, and his main principles were:
- Free interpretation of the Bible: Believers should interpret scripture for themselves.
- Salvation by faith: Forgiveness and salvation do not depend on the good deeds a person did in their life, but on faith and God’s will.
- Rejection of veneration: Opposition to the veneration of the Virgin Mary and saints.
- Opposition to Church property: Disagreement with the Church owning vast property.
Spread of the Reformation Across Europe
Lutheranism spread rapidly across Northern Europe. The movement also diversified, and other reformers appeared with new doctrines.
Key Reformers and Their Doctrines
- Ulrich Zwingli: A Swiss pastor who founded the Reformed Church in the city of Zurich.
- John Calvin: A French theologian who spread a type of Protestantism from Geneva, Switzerland. His beliefs were based on predestination, meaning that people were destined for salvation or damnation from birth. Calvinism spread across Switzerland and to England.
The English Reformation Under Henry VIII
When the Pope would not give his consent for King Henry VIII to divorce Catherine of Aragon, Henry broke with the Catholic Church in 1534. The Act of Supremacy was passed, under which he appointed himself head of the Church of England.
Religious Conflicts and Wars in Europe
In 1521, the Church excommunicated Luther and attempted to prosecute him for heresy. It was unsuccessful because he received the protection of the German nobles. Charles I was appointed Emperor in 1519. Various meetings took place, such as the Diet of Worms, but no agreement was reached. The Catholics considered the Lutherans ‘Protestants,’ but they referred to themselves as ‘the Reformed.’
Early Conflicts and the Peace of Augsburg
The Protestant German princes supported Luther and formed an alliance called the Schmalkaldic League. The Catholic German princes defeated the League at the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. The Peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555, but this agreement did not result in religious peace in Europe; on the contrary, it provoked wars in France, in the Low Countries, and in the British Isles.
Consequences of Religious Division in Europe
In consequence of the religious division, Protestants and Catholics persecuted each other, and the Pope and the Emperor became less influential.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was a religious, intellectual, and political movement by the Catholic Church against the Protestant Reformation.
The Council of Trent’s Directives
The Council of Trent, which was held between 1545 and 1563, established the Catholic Church’s course of action in three main areas:
- The clarification of their teachings.
- Internal reform.
- The repression of Protestantism.
Spanish Monarchy and 16th Century Religious Wars
In the 16th century, the Spanish Monarchy became the most powerful in Europe. Charles V reigned from 1516 to 1556. His son, Philip II, took over the throne from 1556 to 1598. Both of them ruled over Europe and pursued similar political objectives:
- To retain their territorial patrimony through numerous wars against other kingdoms.
- To defend Catholicism; they took measures to preserve religious unity both in their territories and throughout Europe.
- Their domestic policy continued to be discriminatory, and outside Spain, they waged religiously motivated wars against the Protestant states.
16th Century Economy and Society in Spain
The port of Seville monopolized trade with the colonies through the Casa de Contratación. To protect ships from pirate attacks, Philip II organized a fleet system so the voyages between the Americas and Seville could be made in groups escorted by warships.
Impact of New World Riches on Spain
The arrival of precious metals on the peninsula affected the Spanish Monarchy in several ways:
- It enabled the kings to finance the numerous wars they were involved in.
- The arrival of metals enriched the nobility, but the majority of the population became poorer.
- With many resources, the monarchs were able to begin more expensive projects.
- They increased taxes, and the economy continued to be based on agriculture.