The Protestant Reformation and the Rise of New Powers in Europe
The Protestant Reformation
Humanism and the Church
Humanism had changed the way we understand the world and affected the role of the Church. There had been many criticisms against the excessive luxury of the popes, the political role of bishops and clergy, and against the ignorant and corrupt. In the early 16th century, a German Augustinian friar named Martin Luther proposed a religious reform and caused the division of Christendom.
Lutheranism
In 1517, Luther posted a paper with 95 proposals for reform of the Church at the gates of Wittenberg. Luther’s text was widely reported and proposed to get the attention of the Pope in Rome. He did not intend to break with the Roman church, but the positions were radicalized, leading to his excommunication. The matter reached political dimensions when many German princes supported Luther and decided not to recognize the authority of the Pope. The initial reason for Luther’s protest was the preaching of papal bulls. He would eventually develop a religious reform proposal that defended the idea that the relationship with God is established only through faith without intermediaries. Consequently, he rejected the ecclesiastical hierarchy, arguing that everything a believer ought to know was contained in the Bible. He also rejected many doctrinal aspects of the Church, including the cult of the Virgin and the saints.
Calvinism
Zwingli and Calvin joined the break with Rome. Their main contribution was the belief in predestination. The followers of this reform began to be known by the generic name of Protestants.
Anglicanism
King Henry VIII, married to Catherine, daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, asked Pope Clement VII for the annulment of his marriage in order to marry Anne Boleyn. When he was denied, Henry decided to leave the Church of Rome and proclaimed himself the head of the Church of England. This was not a doctrinal break, but only a hierarchical one. However, the Church of England soon began to accept some Protestant principles to build a new church.
Charles V
Advent of the House of Austria
The accession of Charles V, son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad, introduced the Royal House of Habsburg to Spain. The hegemony of Spain remained in Europe and America.
Charles V’s Biography
Born in Ghent and educated in Flanders, Charles was the son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad. He arrived in Spain in 1517 surrounded by a court of Flemish politicians. He was considered a foreigner due to his inability to recognize the language, customs, and traditions of Spain. This, along with his request to the Castilian Cortes for money to pay for his coronation as Emperor of Germany, led to two significant events: the Revolt of the Comuneros and the Germanias Revolt.
Internal Politics
Tension erupted in 1519 due to the expenses related to his election as Emperor. The discontent materialized in two uprisings:
- Revolt of the Comuneros: The uprising began when 14 Castilian cities met in Tordesillas with Joanna, recognizing her as the only queen. The commoners were defeated at the Battle of Villalar by troops of Charles V. The main leaders were Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado.
- Germanias Revolt: This revolt took place in Valencia. Associations and guilds were established against the Emperor, who did not agree to pay the expenses of his coronation as Emperor.
Foreign Policy
Charles V’s objectives were:
- Maintain the Roman Catholic religion throughout his empire.
- Extend his control and maintain hegemony.
War against France: King Francis I of France desired to increase his heritage, just as Charles V aimed to expand the House of Austria. The main point of friction between the two monarchs was the Duchy of Milan in Italy. Charles V obtained victory and took Francis I prisoner at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. However, Spain lost the Duchy of Burgundy and France regained Milan.
War against the Turks: The defense of Christianity against the Turkish threat and defending Genoese interests were the causes of the clash against the Turks. Led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, they came by land, following the Danube to the gates of Vienna, although they eventually withdrew. However, the danger remained in the Mediterranean.
Abdication of Charles V
Charles V decided to abdicate in favor of his son Philip and retire to the Monastery of Yuste (Cáceres). He had not achieved a satisfactory solution to his problems, despite having spent enormous energy and resources. The only question left unresolved was the submission of the crown of Castile to the will of their king, who was confident that it could provide him with its wealth, greatly enhanced by gold and silver from America.
Philip II
Accession to the Throne
Upon his withdrawal from government, Charles V divided his dominions:
- His brother Ferdinand received the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary.
- His son Philip received the crowns of Castile and Aragon, with all its possessions in Italy and America, besides the Netherlands (Flanders) and the County of Burgundy.
Objectives of his Policy
Philip II’s main objectives were:
- Maintain the Catholic religion throughout his empire.
- Extend his control and maintain hegemony.
Foreign Policy
War against France: The conflicts with France, which ended more due to the exhaustion of the contenders than because an end to the rivalry had been reached, saw Philip II achieve an important victory at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557).
War against the Turks: The Turks continued to threaten shipping and trade in the Mediterranean. The battle was led by Don Juan of Austria, who achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Lepanto (1571).
War against England: The struggle against England arose because England aspired to mastery of the seas and because England became the defender of the Protestants, while Spain defended the Catholics. For this, Philip II assembled a large navy, the “Invincible Armada.” However, a temporary storm and strong English forces defeated the Armada. This marked the beginning of political and economic decline for Spain and allowed England to become the first maritime power in the world.
Union of Portugal
With the incorporation of Portugal to the possessions of Philip II, the union of the Iberian kingdoms was achieved. Philip II was the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne through his mother, Elizabeth of Portugal. When King Sebastian of Portugal died without leaving any descendants, Philip II claimed the Portuguese crown. The Portuguese initially refused to accept Philip II, but he sent troops by land and sea, forcing the Cortes to decide in his favor. The Cortes meeting in 1581 proclaimed Philip king of Portugal as Philip I.
End of Philip II’s Reign
Philip II’s reign is surrounded by a black legend. Don Carlos, son of Philip II and Maria of Portugal, was mentally ill, and his illness led him to rebel against his father. His father locked him in his palace, where he died of excesses. This black legend was exploited by the enemies of Philip II. Sick and tired of the intrigues and wars, Philip II retired to the Monastery of El Escorial, where he would die.