The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Response
1. Martin Luther
Early Life and the 95 Theses
Born in Eisleben, Saxony in 1483, Martin Luther entered the Augustinian Order after a near-death experience in a storm. He studied at the University of Erfurt and later earned his doctorate at Wittenberg. Around this time, the Catholic Church began raising money for the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica by selling indulgences: certificates that promised salvation to contributors. In response to this practice, Luther posted his famous 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg University church in 1517 (not 1527). These theses quickly spread throughout Europe due to the printing press.
The Diet of Worms and the Birth of Protestantism
Summoned to the Diet of Worms in 1521 (not 1529), Luther was condemned and excommunicated by the Church. This event marked the birth of Protestantism. During his subsequent exile, Luther translated the Bible into German. His protection by German princes and his fight against Charles V led to a period of internal wars in Germany between Catholics and Protestants. This conflict eventually ended with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, which decreed that each territory would adopt the religion chosen by its ruler.
Lutheran Doctrine
- Salvation through Faith: Luther argued that salvation comes through faith alone, not through good works or indulgences.
- Free Interpretation of the Bible: He advocated for individual interpretation of scripture.
- Two Sacraments: Lutheranism recognizes only two sacraments: Baptism and the Eucharist.
- Rejection of Catholic Practices: Luther rejected the authority of the Pope, the cult of the Virgin Mary, and the veneration of saints.
2. Other Reforms
Calvinism
Founder: John Calvin
Core Doctrine: Predestination. Calvinism teaches that everyone is born with a destiny predetermined by God, which cannot be changed. Earthly wealth is seen as a sign of divine favor.
Spread: Calvinism spread throughout Switzerland and France (where followers were called Huguenots).
The Anglican Reformation
King Henry VIII of England desired to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. When the Pope refused, Henry VIII declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England with the consent of Parliament through the Act of Supremacy. He became both the religious and political leader of England and persecuted those who refused to accept his authority, such as Thomas More.
3. The Council of Trent
Convened by Pope Paul III in 1545 (not 1546) in the city of Trento, the Council of Trent aimed to address the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation. The Council’s key doctrines included:
- Salvation through Faith and Works: The Council affirmed that both faith and good works are necessary for salvation.
- Seven Sacraments: It reaffirmed the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church.
- Canon of Scripture: It established the final canon of the Bible (73 books, not 72).
The Council also standardized liturgical practices, mandated that bishops reside in their dioceses, established seminaries for the training of priests, published a catechism, and encouraged devotion to the Virgin Mary and the saints. The Baroque art style would later serve the Counter-Reformation by promoting Catholic teachings through art, processions, and pilgrimages. Despite these efforts, the Council did not reunite Christendom but rather solidified the divisions between Protestants and Catholics.
4. Baroque Art
Flourishing between 1600 and 1750, Baroque art was promoted by the Catholic Church to counter the Protestant Reformation. Its characteristics included:
- Realism: Baroque art sought to portray life in all its complexity.
- Clarity and Accessibility: It aimed to communicate the teachings of the Council of Trent in a clear and understandable way.
- Emotional Impact: It sought to evoke strong emotions and inspire devotion.
Notable Figures:
- Music: Bach, Vivaldi
- Literature: Quevedo, Góngora
- Architecture and Sculpture: Bernini
- Painting: Velázquez, Murillo, Rubens
5. The Missions
Pope Alexander VI entrusted the evangelization of newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal. This led to the creation of the Patronato Real, granting the Iberian monarchs the authority to send missionaries, build churches, organize Christian communities, appoint bishops, and establish new missions. From the 17th century onward, missionary leadership shifted to Rome with the establishment of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. A training center for missionaries was also established in Paris. Two main approaches to evangelization emerged:
- Imposing European Christianity.
- Adapting the message of Jesus to existing cultures and traditions.