The Origins of English: Language and Conquest in Early Britain
The Linguistic Landscape Before English
English was introduced in the British Isles in the middle of the fifth century. Previous to this, the presence of a number of races in the island can be detected, and each of these races had a language. We do not have any knowledge of a time in the history of man where man did not have any language; however, we know very little of the early languages of England.
Before the Celts, we have no knowledge of a language in Britain. The only language that may provide us with a clue to at least one language previous to Celtic languages is Basque, which seems to have no affiliation with any other language now known.
There are two divisions to the Celtic languages:
- The Gaelic or Goidelic branch.
- The Cymric or Britannic branch.
Celtic was the first Indo-European tongue to be spoken in England, and it is still spoken by a considerable number of people.
The Roman Occupation and the Spread of Latin (43 AD – 410 AD)
Latin was also spoken rather extensively for a period of about four centuries when Britain became a province of the Roman Empire, before the coming of English.
Julius Caesar first attempted to conquer the British Isles in 55 BC, but was unsuccessful. He tried again the next year and failed again. The following year he tried again and succeeded in establishing himself in the southeast, but left shortly thereafter. It was in 43 AD that the Emperor Claudius conquered the island.
However, the progress of Roman control was not uninterrupted. A serious uprising of the natives occurred in 61 AD under Boudicca, where 70,000 Romans and Romanized Britons are said to have been massacred. The Romans never penetrated far into the mountains of Wales and Scotland. The areas conquered were under Roman rule for more than three hundred years.
The island was slowly Romanized through:
- The construction of four major highways and numerous lesser roads connecting important centers.
- The introduction of Roman habits of life (houses, baths, temples, and theatres).
- The introduction of Christianity.
This process was cut short in the fifth century. A great number of inscriptions have been found, all in Latin. Since these are public records, it is easy to assume Latin was the official language. This does not indicate a widespread use of the Latin language in the general population, since it did not replace Celtic. It is likely that only the members of the upper classes and those living in cities and towns spoke Latin.
While many people spoke Latin, it was not widespread enough to survive the Germanic invasions as Celtic did. Its use began to decline after 410 AD, the approximate date at which the last of the Roman troops were officially withdrawn from the island.
The Germanic Invasions and the Formation of English
In the year 449, the invasion of the British Isles at the hands of certain Germanic tribes started, marking the foundation of the English nation. The Germanic tribes that conquered England were the:
- Jutes
- Saxons
- Angles
The island had been exposed to attacks from the Saxons since as early as the fourth century. The Romans had been protecting the island from these attacks and those from the Picts and Scots. The Celts had depended on the Romans for protection, and when they withdrew, the Celts found themselves at a disadvantage and were no longer able to keep out the Picts and Scots. Civilization, as had been attained under Roman influence, was largely destroyed.
Anglo-Saxon Society and the Heptarchy
The organization of society was by families and clans with a sharp distinction between eorls (a kind of hereditary aristocracy) and the ceorls (simple freemen). In time, various tribes combined, either for greater strength or under the influence of a powerful leader, to produce small kingdoms. Seven of these are recognized as the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy:
- Northumbria
- Mercia
- East Anglia
- Kent
- Essex
- Sussex
- Wessex
This grouping was not very permanent. In the early part of the seventh century, Northumbria gained political supremacy over a number of other kingdoms and held a leadership in learning and literature as well. In the eighth century, this leadership passed to Mercia, and finally to Wessex in the ninth century.
The Naming of the Land and the Language
The Celts called their Germanic conquerors, the Teutons, Saxons. Early Latin writers, following Celtic usage, called them Saxons and the land Saxonia. But soon the terms Angli and Anglia refer not only to the Teutons in England but to all of them. Bede called the history of the king of Kent in 601, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum.
In time, Angli and Anglia became the usual terms in Latin texts. From the beginning, writers in the vernacular never called their language anything but Englisc. The name is derived from the name of the Angles but is used without distinction for the language of all the invading tribes. The land and its people are called Angelcynn, and this was the common name until after the Danish period. From the year 1000, Englaland begins to take its place. The name English is thus older than the name England. It is likely that England took its name from the Angles to avoid confusion with the Saxons.