The October Revolution and the Rise of the Soviet Union
The October Revolution of 1917
Kerensky’s government aimed to establish a parliamentary republic in Russia, hold elections for the Constituent Assembly, and keep Russia in the Great War. However, the Bolsheviks and the Petrograd Soviet strongly opposed these goals.
The Revolutionary Days
In the summer of 1917, the Bolshevik Party was banned, and Lenin was exiled. The Soviets, led by the Bolsheviks and supported by the Mensheviks, planned an insurrection with the aid of the Red Guard.
- October 25: Rebel forces seized control of workplaces and key capital services.
- The Assault: The attack on the Winter Palace, the seat of the provisional government, was the decisive act.
- Outcome: The government resigned following Kerensky’s flight, and the revolution spread rapidly to Moscow and northern Russia.
Consolidation of Power and the Formation of the USSR
The Civil War and international boycotts shaped the new Soviet state. Although the Constituent Assembly attempted to transform Russia into a democratic republic, the Bolsheviks dissolved it during its first meeting because it refused to submit to the Soviets.
The Soviet State Structure
- The Party: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) was governed by the Politburo. Party and State were inseparable.
- Governance: The Congress of Soviets served as the legislature, while the Presidium held executive power.
- Formation: In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established, later consolidated by the 1924 Constitution.
From Lenin to Stalin
The Bolsheviks reorganized the socialist movement, aiming to provide a model for the global proletariat.
The Third International (Comintern)
Believing that traditional socialist parties had become too conciliatory toward capitalism, Russian revolutionaries founded the Third International in 1919. In 1920, the 21 conditions for membership were established, effectively creating new Communist parties based on Marxism-Leninism.
Expansion of the Communist Revolution
Lenin and Trotsky sought to spread the revolution globally. A notable attempt was the 1919 German insurrection by the Spartacists, which failed and resulted in the deaths of leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg.
Lenin’s Death and the Struggle for Power
Following Lenin’s death in 1924, a power struggle emerged within the CPSU:
- Trotsky: Advocated for “permanent revolution,” rapid collectivization, and internal party democracy.
- Stalin: Proposed “socialism in one country,” a mixed economy, and centralized party control.
By 1927, Stalin seized power, ending the NEP, enforcing state-led collectivization, and establishing an authoritarian dictatorship by eliminating all political opposition.