The Modern Age: A Transformation of Europe
Introduction
The Modern Age, a significant period in European history, spans from the 15th to the 18th century. It is traditionally marked by the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the French Revolution in 1789.
Signs of Change
Politics
- Reinforcement of Absolute Monarchies: Authoritarian power was consolidated through measures such as maintaining standing armies, establishing royal estates for taxation, and utilizing symbols of authority.
- Diplomacy: Ambassadors were established to represent different realms in European courts.
- Example of Spain: The reign of the Catholic Monarchs (Ferdinand and Isabella) focused on political, territorial, and religious unity. They implemented policies like the Segovia Concord (joint rule) and the Court of the Holy Inquisition.
- Key Events in Spain: The expulsion of the Jews (1492), the conquest of Granada (1492), and the discovery of America (1492) were significant events during their reign.
Economy
- Economic Growth: Trade and finance flourished, leading to the creation of banks, bills of exchange, and credit systems. This gave rise to capitalism, which sought maximum profit.
- Mercantilism and Protectionism: Kings favored trade protectionism and mercantilism to benefit their kingdoms.
Science and Geography
- Pursuit of Progress: Kingdoms sought progress as it brought power, wealth, and prestige.
- Advancements: Improvements in navigation, cartography (including the use of the astrolabe), and the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized knowledge and exploration.
Culture
- Humanism and Renaissance: The Modern Age saw a focus on humanism, which placed man at the center of the universe. The Renaissance revived classical Greek and Roman culture.
- Anthropocentrism: Man was considered adventurous and driven by reason. Religious doubts arose, leading to the emergence of Protestant denominations (Lutheran, Anglican, and Calvinist).
The Catholic Monarchs in Spain
Reign and Objectives
The arrival of Ferdinand and Isabella marked the beginning of the Modern Age in Spain. The Iberian Peninsula was divided into five kingdoms: Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, and Granada. The Catholic Monarchs aimed to achieve territorial and religious unity.
- Territorial Unity: They pursued a policy of war and strategic marriages to unify the peninsula under one crown. The Segovia Concord established joint rule, symbolized by the motto “Tanto monta, monta tanto” and the symbols of the yoke and arrows.
- Religious Unity: The conquest of Granada (1492) and the expulsion of Muslims (those who converted were called Moriscos) were key to achieving religious unity. The expulsion of the Jews in 1492, however, led to economic decline. The Court of the Holy Inquisition was established to persecute heretics.
Importance and Legacy
The reign of the Catholic Monarchs was marked by three major events: the conquest of Granada and expulsion of Muslims, the discovery of America, and the expulsion of the Jews. Queen Isabella’s death in 1504 led to a series of regencies, including that of Cardinal Cisneros, who played a crucial role in consolidating power and promoting cultural initiatives like the University of Alcalá de Henares. The Catholic Monarchs left a legacy of a unified Spain, expanded territories in North Africa and America, and a complex web of political alliances through strategic marriages.
The Age of Discovery
Causes
- Economic: The need for new trade routes and raw materials (silk, spices, gold, silver) drove exploration.
- Ideological: The desire to spread Christianity, the Renaissance spirit of adventure and scientific inquiry, and the ambitions of powerful monarchies fueled the voyages of discovery.
Consequences
- Political: The creation of vast Spanish and Portuguese empires, increased rivalry between European powers, and a shift in global power dynamics.
- Economic: The rise of the Atlantic trade route, the introduction of new agricultural products and precious metals, and the continued practice of mercantilism transformed the global economy.
Key Explorers and Events
- Christopher Columbus: He “discovered” America in 1492, landing in the Bahamas (which he named San Salvador) while seeking a westward route to the East Indies.
- Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): This treaty divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal, with Spain claiming the west and Portugal the east.
Definitions
- Humanism: A cultural movement that emphasized human potential and reason, drawing inspiration from classical cultures.
- Renaissance: A period of artistic and intellectual revival inspired by classical Greek and Roman culture.
- Patrons: Wealthy individuals who funded artists and scholars.
- Protectionism: Economic policies that restrict imports to protect domestic industries.
- Mercantilism: An economic system that emphasized trade and the accumulation of wealth through exports.