The Irish Question: Conflict and Nationalism (1171–1900)
The Irish Question: Origins and Early History
Myth and Early Society
Irish myths suggest that Ireland was a chaste Emerald Isle ravished by the brutal Saxon. The “Irish Race” was defined by the division between Celtic and Anglo-Irish populations. During the High Kingship of Tara, Ireland was known for its missionary schools and scholasticism, though it was also a victim of Viking Raids.
The Anglo-Norman Conquest (12th Century)
The Anglo-Norman conquest followed William the Conqueror’s arrival in England from France. A century later, people agreed to recognize Henry II as King of Ireland. Normans eventually conquered Ireland, but during the Gaelic Resurgence, they were not particularly interested in maintaining control, thus they did not establish a strong central government.
Tudor Policy and the Reformation
Henry VII and Tudor Rule
Following the War of the Roses, Henry VII established Tudor policy in Ireland.
The Protestant Reformation in Ireland
The Protestant Reformation, led by figures like Martin Luther and Henry VIII, saw Henry VIII set up the reformed Anglican Church of England. Under the Tudors, Ireland became the breadbasket of Britain.
Land Confiscation and Plantations (17th Century)
Wealth Transfer and New Ethnicities
In the 17th century, approximately 80% of the land was confiscated from the Gaelic-Irish. Consequently, people from Britain were sent to “settle” in Ireland. This led to the appearance of a new community and new ethnicities (Anglo-Irish and Scots-Irish), resulting in a massive transfer of wealth.
The Ulster Plantation
The most successful plantation was in Ulster, primarily settled by Presbyterians and Scots. The conflict between Catholics and Protestants has been a constant feature of Irish history. Catholicism was targeted for eradication, but not without a fight. Ultimately, the British moved the Irish off the land, and the Irish aristocracy often moved to England.
Social Structure Under British Rule
There were three main social classes:
- Landed British Gentry
- Irish Peasants
- Absent Landlords
The Age of Penal Laws
During the “Age of Penal Laws,” Catholics and Presbyterians faced severe bans and discrimination.
Reform, Rebellion, and the Act of Union
Limited Autonomy and Political Parties
Regarding reform, the Irish Parliament, influenced by the Irish Protestant Political Party, achieved limited autonomy from the British Crown.
Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen
Wolfe Tone is considered the first modern rebel in Ireland. The Society of United Irishmen attempted to unite Catholics and Protestants to establish a constitutional republic. France intervened to assist them.
The 1798 Rebellion and Defeat
Tone and his men were ultimately defeated, leading to an armed rebellion. There were two main militias involved:
- The United Irishmen (seeking independence)
- A loyalist militia in Ulster (who wished to remain with the British)
The Bitter Opposition to the Act of Union (1801)
There was bitter opposition by the Irish against the Act of Union. The British, frustrated by Irish desires for independence, moved the Irish Parliament to London, formally dissolving it.
The Age of Daniel O’Connell
Catholic Emancipation and Non-Violence
During the “Age of Daniel O’Connell,” Catholic advocates promoted non-violent political action. O’Connell successfully made it possible for Catholics to participate in politics. Civil disobedience was employed to change the situation. Penal Laws were repealed, though the Act of Union remained in force.
The Great Famine (An Gorta Mór)
Causes and Consequences
The Great Famine, or Great Hunger, presented a devastating problem: the potato crops failed, leaving the Irish with nothing to eat. At the time, three-quarters of the crop food produced in Ireland was designated for industrial Britain, and one-quarter was used for grazing cattle. Peasants cultivated for a landlord, but they were allowed to cultivate a small part of the land, and most relied on potatoes for their own use.
Starvation and Emigration
The Irish population faced a stark choice: starve to death or emigrate, primarily to the USA, Britain, or South America.
Political Currents and the Rise of Nationalism
Land Reform and Growing Violence
Land reform was timid but progressive. Religious feelings and commitment grew stronger, and the use of violence against Britain increased.
Divergent Political Thought
There were two main currents in Irish Political Thought:
- Independence through violence and armed rebellion.
- Independence through negotiation, parliamentary processes, and non-violent protests.
The ultimate goal was an Ireland with civil and religious liberties for all, often envisioned as a Catholic Ireland achieved through a mixture of violence and negotiation.
Charles Parnell and Nationalist Unity
Charles Parnell, an Anglo-Irish Protestant, was successfully able to unite most of the nationalist groups.
Home Rule and Cultural Revival
The Home Rule Debate
“Home Rule” bills were debated in the British Parliament. Irish Unionists and Loyalists were against these measures, but Nationalists and Republicans were in favor.
The Gaelic Renaissance (Late 19th/Early 20th Century)
The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a surge in nationalism. Its cultural expressions included:
- Nostalgia for “Irish Ireland”
- Nationalist newspapers
- The Gaelic League