The Industrial Revolutions: Causes, Technology, and Global Impact
The First Industrial Revolution (1760–1840)
Key Factors Driving Industrialization
Demographic Revolution and Population Growth
Until the eighteenth century, the European population grew slowly, characterized by very high birth and death rates. Starting in the 18th century, birth rates remained high, but mortality rates dropped significantly, leading to a demographic revolution. This advanced the economy because it increased consumption.
Agricultural Expansion and Innovation
With the increasing population, food production grew. Agricultural techniques were improved:
- Fallow land was replaced by the continuous rotation of crops.
- The iron plow was introduced, and irrigation systems were improved.
- This expanded arable land and introduced new crops.
Later, in the nineteenth century, new machinery and chemical fertilizers were introduced, allowing production to continue rising. Breeding was reformed, and part of the farmland was devoted to producing fodder to feed the animals. Agricultural structures also changed, as land became private property. The agricultural revolution also had another effect: the rural exodus.
The Liberal Mentality
Liberalism defended the idea that private initiative was the engine of economic growth.
Technological Advancements and Key Sectors
The First Industrial Revolution involved heavy industrialization, starting with the utilization of machines and tools such as the steam engine. This increased productivity and reduced product prices.
Why Britain Led the Revolution
The First Industrial Revolution began in Britain because:
- It had sufficient labor and a large market for its products.
- It had deposits of iron and coal.
- The liberal mentality was widespread.
Leading Industrial Sectors
- Textile Industry: This sector was the fastest to integrate technical innovations.
- Metallurgy (Iron): Developed greatly in the mid-century.
The Revolution of Transportation
New transports were created that could move goods and food better and faster, notably the steamboat and the railroad.
Innovations in Navigation
The first transport innovations occurred in navigation:
- Fulton established the first commercial line with steam-powered ships.
- The steamboat incorporated iron hulls and propellers.
- Fleets began to specialize, introducing the first ships with cold storage.
The Railroad Era
The railroad was the result of the conjunction of two major developments in the Industrial Revolution: the steam engine and iron machinery.
- 1825: First line of rail freight.
- 1830: Passenger lines established.
Socioeconomic Consequences of New Transport
The revolution in transport had a significant socioeconomic impact:
- Strong growth in trade.
- The global economy began to specialize.
- Diets improved and migration was facilitated.
The Second Industrial Revolution (Post-1870)
New Energy Sources and Industrial Powers
The Second Industrial Revolution (starting around 1870) introduced new industries and industrial powers. New primary energy sources were petroleum and electricity.
Key Industrial Changes
- The Steel Sector: Revolutionized by the invention of the Bessemer furnace.
- The Electrical Industry: Led by the production and distribution of electricity.
- The Chemical Industry: Used raw materials for medicines, dynamite, and fertilizers.
- New Transportation: Cars and planes, powered by petroleum.
These changes had profound effects on the industrial powers. Britain lost its industrial supremacy, while the U.S. and Germany gained prominence.
The Rise of Big Business and Modern Banking
The Société Anonyme (SA) was created, where the capital required by a company is split into shares. These shares are bought and sold on the exchange. Banks were also created that granted loans, facilitating large-scale investment.
New Production Systems
To increase production, new systems were developed:
- Taylorism: Taylor divided the work into small tasks that were timed accurately (scientific management).
- Fordism: Products passed from one operator to another via the assembly line, increasing efficiency and mass production.
Demographic and Urban Effects of Industrialization
Rapid Population Growth in the 19th Century
The European population grew greatly in the nineteenth century due to two factors:
- The abrupt decline in mortality.
- Increasing fertility.
Internal and External Migration
The rural exodus was an intense process of urbanization, leading to city widenings and expansions. Since cities could not absorb so many people, many Europeans emigrated to other continents, including America, Australia, and New Zealand.