The Industrial Revolution: Causes, Impact, and Global Spread

Posted on Jan 12, 2026 in Geography

The Industrial Revolution

• Began in the UK.
• Started in the late 18th century:
  • 1st Industrial Revolution (1780–1870)
  • 2nd Industrial Revolution (1870–1914)
• Changed:
  • The way goods were produced (machines replaced manual labor).
  • The way work was organized (factories, division of labor).
• Radically changed the economy and society, marking the end of the agrarian economy.

Why the Industrial Revolution Began in the UK

• Stable political situation and favorable economic system: Economic Liberalism.
• The Agricultural Revolution.
• Population growth (The Demographic Revolution).
• Vast colonial empire that supplied:
  • Raw materials.
  • Markets to sell products.
  • Capital (from foreign trade).
• Development of textile and iron industries.
• Availability of capital to finance industry.
• Existence of an entrepreneurial bourgeoisie.
• Improved transportation (roads).
• Capability for technical innovation.

The Agricultural Revolution (18th Century)

Key Innovations

• Norfolk System:
  • Constant crop rotation (no fallow land), leading to higher yields.
  • Production of feed for animals (increased livestock farming).

  This resulted in increased cereal production and an improved human diet.

• Other Innovations:
  • Spread of new crops from America, leading to a more diversified diet.
  • New machinery.
  • Selection of seeds and livestock.
• Enclosure Acts: Turned common land into private property, which was obligatory to fence. Poor peasants could not afford fences, so they sold their properties to rich peasants, the bourgeoisie, and nobles.

Consequences of the Agricultural Revolution

• Increased Agricultural Production:
  • Improved nutrition and population growth.
  • Freed peasants who emigrated to cities to look for industrial jobs.
  • Higher profits that were invested in developing industry.
• Concentration of Landownership:
  • Higher profits that were invested in developing industry.
  • Freed peasants who emigrated to cities to look for industrial jobs.

Population Growth (The Demographic Revolution)

Occurred during the 18th century.

• Birth rate: Remained high.
• Death rate: Decreased (due to improved nutrition, hygiene, etc.).

This resulted in a large natural population growth, leading to:

• An increased workforce for industry.
• Increased demand for industrial products.

Mechanization of Industry

The evolution of industry can be divided into three phases:

1. Artisanal Industry: Until approximately the mid-18th century.
2. Modern Industry (1780–1950):
   • 1st Industrial Revolution:
     • Steam Engine: Powered by burning coal; moved other machines. Patented by James Watt (1769). It was the foundation of the 1st Industrial Revolution.
     • Factory Production: Concentrates production in one place, located near sources of power, and requires significant capital investment rather than skilled labor.
     • Factory System: Characterized by a rigid schedule, 12–14 hour days, dangerous conditions, and mind-numbing monotony.
   • 2nd Industrial Revolution: Machines were moved by engines powered by new sources of energy (oil and electricity).
3. Contemporary Industry: Mid-20th century onwards.

The Textile Industry

This was the first sector to become mechanized.

Population growth led to increased demand for cotton fabrics, prompting the invention of new machines to increase production (first powered by hand and water, later by steam engines).

Key Processes and Inventions

• Spinning Cotton: Transforming raw cotton into cotton thread.
  • Spinning Jenny: Manual spinning machine, James Hargreaves (1764).
  • Water Frame: Water-powered spinning machine, Richard Arkwright (1767).
  • Self-acting Spinning Mule: Automatic steam-powered spinning machine, Richard Roberts (1830).
• Weaving Cloth: Lacing threads together to form a fabric.
  • Power Loom: Steam-powered loom that combined threads to make cloth, Edmond Cartwright (1785).

Impact of Mechanization

• Steam-powered machines enabled factories to be located in cities (not restricted to riverbanks anymore).
• The factory system was consolidated.
• Cotton became more popular than linen or wool.
• Established the supremacy of the British cotton industry globally.

Iron and Steel Industry

New techniques to produce iron were invented, leading the British iron industry to undergo significant growth.

Production Methods Comparison

New Techniques

• Puddling: Improved resistance of the iron.
• Rolling: Improved casting and uniformity.

The Spread of Industrialization

Around 1830, industrialization spread to countries close to the UK (Belgium, France, Germany) and those with close ties (USA).

Factors Determining the Spread

• Availability of capital and natural resources (coal, iron, cotton).
• Population growth (availability of workforce).
• Demand for industrial products (wealth).
• Political situation.
• Transportation infrastructure.

Case Studies

Belgium

• Historical Background: Independent from the Netherlands since 1830.
• First country after Britain to industrialize.
• Factors:
  • Coal and iron deposits located near each other.
  • Traditional thriving textile industry (wool).
  • Napoleonic block-trade to the UK (1806–1814).
  • Government promotion of transport to unify the nation (construction of waterways and a national railway network starting in 1834).

France

• Historical Background: Turbulent period (1789–1815).
• Industrialized later due to:
  • Unstable political situation.
  • Lack of coal.
  • Lower industrial demand due to slow population growth and the predominance of a self-sufficient rural society.
• Industrialization focused especially in the north of France, due to its proximity to the UK and Belgium.

Germany

• Historical Background: Not politically unified until 1871.
• Modestly industrialized due to:
  • Coal mines (regions: Ruhr, Silesia, etc.).
  • Customs union (Zollverein) established in 1834.
• Germany did not seriously industrialize until after unification (1871).

USA

• Historical Background: Gained independence from the UK in 1776 (Declaration of Independence).
• Quick industrialization due to:
  • Huge territory to grow cotton.
  • Mining resources.
  • High demand due to immigration.
  • Railway development.
  • Protectionism.
• By 1914 (WWI), the USA was the leading industrial power in the world.

Second Wave of Industrialization

Includes countries like Spain, Italy, Greece, Portugal, and Russia.

Industrialization was slow due to:

• Poor natural resources.
• Little demand (rural and impoverished countries).
• Low investment from either the bourgeoisie or the government.
• Far away from main trading areas.

Economic Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

Revolution in Transport and Rise in Trade

The Steamboat

• Invented in 1807 by Robert Fulton.
• First steamboats were riverboats.
• Later inventions and improvements allowed steamboats to be used for sea transport and trade.
• Canals were built to connect ports (e.g., Suez Canal, 1859–1869).

The Railway

• The locomotive is a mobile steam engine that pulls cars on steel rails.
• First short-distance railways were in Great Britain.
• The Rocket (1829): A locomotive that could pull cars uphill, enabling the building of longer-distance railways for trade and transport.

Rise in Trade

Domestic and foreign trade increased due to:

• Increase in demand and production.
• New transportation methods.

Growth in trade guaranteed food supply. Industry gained access to raw materials and could sell products, allowing each region to specialize its production and become more competitive.

Overall Economic Impact

• Rise of Capitalism.
• Greater inequality between industrialized and non-industrialized countries.
• Global power was measured by industrial capability rather than geographical size or military power.

Social Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

The New Class Society

The Liberal and Industrial Revolutions led to a new social organization: a stratified class society based not on birth, but on personal merit and wealth.

• Dominant Classes: The bourgeoisie and former nobility.
• Dominated Classes: The proletariat and peasants.

Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie gained political power, became wealthy through economic activities, and established themselves as an elite cultural group.

• Upper Bourgeoisie: Owned factories, businesses, mines, land, and banks.
• Petite Bourgeoisie: Small business owners, merchants, doctors, and lawyers.

In bourgeois families, men typically worked, women managed the home, and children attended school.

Birth of the Proletariat

New machines made it difficult for peasants and artisans to continue their traditional work.

The Proletariat consisted of urban workers, miners, and peasants.

In proletarian families, men, women, and children all worked.

Conditions of the Proletariat

• Workers often had little education or skills.
• They suffered very harsh working conditions.
• They worked long hours (14–16 hours) for low wages.
• Factories were loud and dangerous, and workers had no insurance for accidents.
• They lived in small houses in crowded neighborhoods with poor sanitation.
• Many industrial workers were women and children.

The Labour Movement

Starting in the early 1800s, workers blamed machines for low salaries and unemployment.

• Luddite Movement: Groups of artisans protested against industrialization by destroying machinery and burning factories.
• Trade Unions: Workers’ associations created to achieve common goals.
  • They were illegal in Britain until 1825.
  • Demands included: Improved working conditions, shorter hours, two-day weekends, higher pay, and universal suffrage.

Factory owners and businessmen often tried to suppress trade unions.

New Political Ideologies: Socialism and Anarchism

The conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat led to the development of new ideologies, primarily socialism and anarchism.

Industrial Capitalism

• Who controls property? The bourgeoisie controls private property and the means of production (machines, tools, technology).
• What is the role of the State? The government protects people and their private property.
• What is the goal? To gain wealth.

Socialism

• Who controls property? Property and means of production are shared by the community.
• What is the role of the State?
  • The proletariat forms labor parties that plan the economy.
  • A temporary dictatorship of the proletariat is established to create collective ownership.
• What is the goal? A Communist society with neither classes nor a State.

Anarchism

• Who controls property? All property is shared by the community.
• What is the role of the State? Nothing. The proletariat eliminates the State in a spontaneous revolution.
• What is the goal?
  • Small communities where everyone is equal.
  • The elimination of anything that limits freedom (State, classes, private property, and religion).

Definitions

Puddling

A process to refine iron and reduce the amount of carbon in it. It produces wrought iron, which is more resistant.

Rolling

A process in which iron stock is passed through rolls to reduce its thickness and make the thickness uniform. It facilitates casting.

Class Struggle

The concept that society is divided into two main hostile camps (e.g., bourgeoisie and proletariat).