The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of the Class-Based Society
The Industrial Revolution & the Class-Based Society
Beginning of the Industrial Revolution: Great Britain
The Industrial Revolution was a process of technological advancements that led to dramatic economic changes.
Causes:
- Population growth due to improved living conditions and other advancements.
- Changes in the Agricultural Revolution: extensive trade, widespread use of fertilizers, mechanization, and the introduction of crop rotation.
- Technological advances (the Machine Age).
- Increased trade: Foreign trade expanded as the country dominated trade routes in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and domestic trade grew due to increased demand.
Consequences:
- Population growth due to increased demand.
- Increased trade, with profits reinvested in industry.
- Agricultural improvements.
- Mechanization led to faster and improved production of goods.
Key Elements of Industrialization:
Three areas drove economic growth:
- The Textile Industry: Mechanization increased production and reduced prices. The large size and expense of new mechanical looms led to the birth of the factory and the division of labor.
- The Iron and Steel Industry: Development was facilitated by the use of coal as an energy source, producing the heat needed for large-scale iron melting. The Bessemer converter was a key innovation in this industry.
- The Transport Revolution: Improvements to waterways and roads made transportation faster and easier. The invention of the steam locomotive and steamship, along with the opening of the first public railway, allowed for the movement of large quantities of products more efficiently.
Industrialization in the Rest of Europe & the US
During the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution spread to European countries such as Germany, Belgium, and France. These countries possessed favorable conditions for industrialization, including reserves of iron and coal, population growth, capital for investment, and well-developed railway networks.
The Industrialization of the US:
The process began in the 1840s, facilitated by trade links with Great Britain and the application of new techniques.
Industrialization in Spain:
This process began in the 19th century but was slower and later than in other countries due to:
- Limited domestic demand
- Poor quality of coal
- Insufficient domestic capital
In the mid-19th century, the cotton and iron and steel industries gained importance.
The Class-Based Society
A new form of social organization emerged at the end of the 18th century, where people’s status depended on their wealth and job.
Origins:
The French and Industrial Revolutions.
Characteristics:
In this class-based society, social standing was primarily determined by wealth, making it more open than previous systems. All citizens were equal before the law, at least in theory. However, significant economic inequalities resulted in an unequal society.
Society was divided into three groups:
- The Upper Class: The wealthiest individuals, including the wealthy bourgeoisie and nobility.
- The Middle Class: Individuals with a medium level of wealth and higher incomes than the working class, including civil servants, lawyers, doctors, small-scale merchants, craftsmen, and farmers.
- The Working Class: Those living in extreme poverty, including tenant farmers and industrial workers.
Life in the Industrial City:
During the 19th century, the European urban population grew rapidly, with many people migrating to cities. This led to:
- New buildings and infrastructure development
- Expansion of cities
- Construction of new neighborhoods for the middle class (extensions of the historical city center) and the working class (located in marginal areas on the outskirts of the city)
The Working-Class Movement
Industrial Working Conditions:
As industrial capitalism grew, the gap between the wealthy industrial bourgeoisie and the working class widened. The wealthy bourgeoisie enjoyed increased wealth and higher standards of living, while the working class endured terrible working and living conditions:
- Low wages that were insufficient to support a family
- Long and exhausting working days
- Prevalence of child labor in factories and mines
- Common chronic illnesses and accidents
- Lack of worker rights and the right to protest
The Origins of Working-Class Politics:
The difficult working and living conditions experienced by the working class led to protests against factory owners. Economic liberalism allowed factory owners to operate without restrictions. Despite this, the proletariat in Great Britain began to organize. Key developments included:
- The emergence of the Luddites in 1811
- The appearance of the first trade unions in the 1830s
- The rise of the Chartist movement in Great Britain (1838-1848)
Utopian Socialism:
In the first half of the 19th century, theories emerged that criticized capitalism for its social problems. Utopian socialism was one such theory, with prominent figures like Charles Fourier (who suggested reorganizing society into perfect communities) and Robert Owen (who implemented socialist and humanitarian ideas in his textile company, including reduced working hours).
Revolutionary Ideologies
Several revolutionary ideologies emerged during the 19th century, alongside the working-class movement.
Marxism:
Also known as socialism, this ideology, developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, predicted the destruction of capitalism and the establishment of a communist society through stages including class struggle, the dictatorship of the working class, a communist economy, and ultimately, a communist society.
Anarchism:
Developed by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchism advocated for the overthrow of capitalism through a social revolution. Its main principles included individual freedom, direct action, and the abolition of private property, leading to independent communities.
The International:
In the second half of the 19th century, leaders of workers’ organizations from various European countries formed the International Workingmen’s Association (the First International) in London in 1864 to coordinate workers’ actions worldwide. The Second International was founded in Paris in 1889 and dissolved in 1914 at the outbreak of World War I.
The Working-Class Movement in Spain
The working-class movement in Spain developed similarly to the rest of Europe, with Spanish workers facing comparable challenges. Key developments included:
- Luddite-style protests, primarily in Catalonia, the center of the textile industry. In 1835, workers in Barcelona set fire to sewing machines.
- The establishment of Sociedades de Socorro Mutuo, precursors to trade unions, by workers.
In the second half of the 19th century, workers began organizing into trade unions and political parties aligned with two European ideological tendencies:
- The Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE), founded in 1879, and the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), founded in 1888, both followed Marxism.
- Anarchists organized unions (syndicates) like the Federación de la Región Española (FTRE), engaging in violent actions against businesses and landowners.
In 1910, anarchists opposed to violence established the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), which became Spain’s largest and most powerful trade union. Other associations, such as Círculos Católicos and rural societies (Cajas Rurales), were not influenced by revolutionary ideologies.