The Industrial Revolution and the Labor Movement
The Industrial Revolution and the Labor Movement
The Living Conditions of Workers
The Industrial Revolution created two social classes: the bourgeoisie (employers) and the workers (proletariat). Industrialization led to a shift from agricultural work to unskilled factory jobs with low wages. Traditional handicrafts (guilds) offered the highest salaries.
Industrial workers faced extremely long working days. Employers prioritized profits at the expense of workers’ wages. Job security was nonexistent, and workers lived in constant fear of losing their jobs and falling into poverty. Sickness or accidents meant no pay, further exacerbating their precarious situation. Even those who worked lived in conditions close to poverty.
The Origins of the Labor Movement
Since the early nineteenth century, workers, tired of their miserable living conditions and the social problems they faced, began to organize to seek solutions.
1. The First Associations of Workers
The first worker associations appeared with the Industrial Revolution but were initially forbidden. Their primary demand was the right of association, which Britain first recognized in 1824. The second demand was the collective defense of wages and working conditions, leading to the first strikes to pressure for improvements. In the late nineteenth century, the word “syndicat”, of French origin, emerged to designate worker associations. The first recognized trade union was established in Britain in 1834, called the Trade Union.
2. The First Workers’ Actions
Two main orientations emerged:
- Machine Breakers: Believed machinery worsened working conditions. Ned Ludd was a prominent leader of this movement in England.
- Chartists: Advocated for moderate reforms, primarily demanding universal suffrage (the right to vote). Their goal was to elect worker representatives to parliament.
The New Social Theories: Socialism and Anarchism
Introduction
In the mid-nineteenth century, a group of thinkers emerged who were highly critical of capitalism and the societal changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. They criticized the entire structure of industrial society and proposed alternative ways to organize it, aiming for a more just and equitable system.
1. Socialism
The term “socialism” appeared in France around 1830, referring to the pursuit of a fair and caring society. Early socialist thinkers, primarily French and English, were labeled “utopian socialists” because their proposals were considered idealistic and difficult to implement. They believed in the inherent goodness of humanity.
Examples of utopian socialists:
- Robert Owen (1771-1858)
- Claude Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
- Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), considered the father of anarchism
- Narcís Monturiol (Catalan inventor of the submarine)
Theoretical principles of socialism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century with the collaboration of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). Their book, “The Communist Manifesto”, became highly influential among workers.
Unlike utopian socialists, Marx and Engels were considered “scientific socialists” due to their more rigorous analysis.
Key ideas of Marx and Engels (The Communist Manifesto):
- Class Struggle: History is a continuous conflict between dominant and dominated social classes. In the Industrial Revolution, this struggle is between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
- Proletarian Revolution: The proletariat must fight to overcome their oppression.
- Workers’ Goals:
- Seize control of the state, which is currently in the hands of the bourgeoisie.
- Establish a “dictatorship of the proletariat” to create a more egalitarian society and abolish private property.
Consequences of Marxism:
- Emergence of Socialist and Communist Parties: Most European countries saw the formation of political parties based on Marxist ideas, such as the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) founded by Pablo Iglesias.
- Socialist Revolutions: In some countries, socialist and communist revolutions succeeded, notably in Russia (USSR) and China.
2. Anarchism
Alongside socialism, anarchism was another significant ideology influencing European workers in the 18th and 19th centuries. While it shared socialism’s critique of capitalism, it differed in its proposed solutions.
Mikhail Bakunin was a prominent anarchist theorist. He advocated for the complete destruction of the state and the organization of society into free communities.
Key features of anarchism:
- Rejection of the state
- Organization into free communities
- Rejection of political parties (though anarchist trade unions like the CNT existed)
Consequences of Anarchism:
- Influence in less developed countries like Spain and Italy
- No successful anarchist revolutions, though attempts were made to establish free communities (e.g., hippie communities in the USA)
International Associations of Workers
1. The First International
Founded in 1864 by French and English workers, the International Workingmen’s Association (IWA) faced internal conflicts between Marx’s socialist supporters and Bakunin’s anarchist followers. It dissolved in 1876.
2. The Second International
Established in 1889 as a federation of socialist parties, it encompassed:
- Moderates: Advocated for gradual reforms through parliamentary means.
- Social Democrats: Led by Eduard Bernstein, they favored a revision of Marx’s more revolutionary theories.
- Revolutionaries: Those who remained committed to Marx’s revolutionary principles, eventually forming communist parties.