The Independence of the American Colonies and the Regency of María Cristina de Borbón
1. The Independence of the American Colonies (1810-1824)
Parallel to the War of Independence and the Liberal Triennium, a process of emancipation of the American colonies of Spain developed, which ended with the independence of all territories except Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Causes of Independence
- Ideological, Cultural, and Philosophical Causes: The prevailing thought was that of the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century Europe. Independence was based on the ideas of equality, freedom, and national sovereignty, which were put into practice with the independence of British North America in 1776 and the French Revolution in 1789.
- Political Causes: The political crisis in Spain during the reign of Charles IV also affected Spanish America. The colonies were isolated from the metropolis by the war with England and could not trade with Spain. Trade was conducted with neutral countries, which favored autonomy. The American colonies took advantage of the war of independence to free themselves from Spain, as there was a power vacuum and confusion caused by the French invasion.
- Social Cause: The Creoles were the main promoters of independence. They had significant social and economic power through trade and land ownership. However, they lacked access to positions in the colonial administration, as these were appointed in Spain and occupied by Spaniards. The emancipation struggle involved conflict between the natives and the mainland Spanish, as the lower and controlled classes (Indians, blacks, and mestizos) were not separatists.
- International Causes: The Spanish colonial empire was tempting for other powers, such as Britain, especially considering Spain’s support for the independence of the American colonies (1776-1783). England supported the Spanish colonies in achieving freedom, seeking further economic and commercial benefits.
Characteristics and Evolution of the Independence Process
The independence process began in 1808 and ended in 1825, divided into two stages:
- First Stage (1808-1814): Revolutionary movements began in Mexico, Venezuela, and Argentina, exploiting the political vacuum in Spain. However, José I Bonaparte later took over, becoming the King of the Indies. The Creoles attempted to establish law and order through town halls in the capitals, summoning all residents. From these emerged the Supreme Council, which overthrew the peninsular authorities in Venezuela, New Granada, Chile, and Quito. They created their own armies and initiated trade relations with Britain and the U.S. Spain could not send troops to restore order, and the revolutionary Juntas encountered little resistance. Some boards proclaimed independence, while various insurrections took place. Only in Mexico did the insurgency have a bloody character, led by Father Hidalgo, who commanded an army of Indians, mestizos, and Creoles demanding land distribution and equality of rights between ethnic groups. This led to the killing of Spaniards in Guadalajara.
- Second Stage (1814-1824): After the war ended and Ferdinand VII returned to Spain, he sent 10,000 troops under General Morillo in 1815 to curb the independence movement. Leaders like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín emerged at the forefront of the independence movement. Argentina declared independence in 1816 at the Congress of Tucumán. San Martín secured the independence of Chile after the Battle of Chacabuco in 1817 and of Peru after the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824. Bolívar liberated Venezuela after the Battle of Carabobo in 1821 and Ecuador after the Battle of Pichincha in 1822. These territories were grouped as Gran Colombia, led by Bolívar until his death in 1830. In 1825, Upper Peru became independent under the name of Bolivia. In Mexico, the viceroy Iturbide declared independence in 1821 and proclaimed himself emperor as Augustine I. Two years later, he was deposed, and the Republic was proclaimed. Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica separated from Mexico and formed the Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. Paraguay declared its independence in 1811. The new countries were recognized by European countries and the U.S. Spain retained only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
2. Regency of María Cristina de Borbón (1833-1840)
The Beginning of the Regency and the Emergence of Carlism
Upon the death of Ferdinand VII on September 30, 1833, María Cristina de Borbón, mother of Infanta Isabel, who was only three years old, was appointed regent. Her first step was to dismiss supporters of her brother, Carlos María Isidro, who aspired to the throne. María Cristina was not an absolutist and leaned towards the Liberals, granting an amnesty and allowing their return from exile. By attracting the Liberals, she secured their support for her daughter’s claim to the throne. Upon Ferdinand VII’s death, the Carlists, led by Carlos María Isidro, who had been excluded from power and opposed a female monarch, rose up. The Carlists defended the throne’s rights, absolute monarchy, and the alliance between the Throne and the Altar. This movement gained traction in Navarre, the Basque Country, parts of Catalonia and Aragon. It was a rural movement supported by peasants and large landowners, opposed to the urban and industrial world. The Carlists established a government in the territories under their control, and Carlos María Isidro issued an appeal to the Spanish people (Abrantes Manifesto), defending his rights to the throne and establishing his headquarters in Estella. The existence of two monarchs in Spain, Isabel II and Charles V, and the resulting division led to the First Carlist War (1833-1840).
The Onset of Political Parties
During the reign of Isabel II, the first political parties emerged. They arose from discussions about the scope and depth of reforms needed to build a liberal state that would break with the Old Regime. The Moderate and Progressive parties were the heirs of the first liberal and venteañista stage in Cadiz and became the protagonists of political discourse in Spain.