The Independence of Spanish America: Causes, Stages, and Key Figures
The Independence of Spanish America
The emancipation of Spanish America was one of the serious problems during the reign of Fernando VII, involving the independence of colonies within the American viceroyalties, divided into New Spain (Mexico), New Granada, Peru, and Rio de la Plata.
Causes and Features of the Independence Movements
Causes
- Influence of Enlightenment and Liberalism: The spread of Enlightenment ideals, such as the social contract, individual rights, and national sovereignty, along with the examples of the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789), significantly influenced the movements.
- Creole Discontent: Creoles were unhappy with administrative, fiscal, and economic policies imposed by viceroys, judges, and magistrates. They decried corruption and cronyism and desired greater economic freedom and access to markets.
- Weakness of Spain: Spain’s weakness, beginning with the defeat at Trafalgar and the subsequent invasion and occupation by Napoleonic troops, created a power vacuum. The abdications of Bayonne and the captivity of Fernando VII allowed American creoles to form their own independent governing bodies, known as Juntas.
Features
Although independence leaders like Simón Bolívar espoused liberal ideologies, their leadership often took on an authoritarian style, supported by sections of the army and often disregarding the demands of the masses. The creoles themselves largely maintained the existing social divisions of the Old Regime.
The independence process was the result of various events and rebellions across different territories. The process was lengthy and complex, extending from 1808 to 1825, involving rebellions against the Spanish and civil wars among the Americans themselves.
Stages of the Emancipatory Process
First Stage (1808-1815)
The first phase coincided with the Peninsular War against the French. Initially, the Juntas formed in America acknowledged the authority of the Central Junta. American representatives were even present in the Cortes of Cádiz. However, attitudes shifted around 1810. In May, the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata declared independence, forming a revolutionary junta in Buenos Aires. Chile and Venezuela followed. At this stage, only Peru, a stronghold of Spanish royalists, and the West Indies remained loyal to the Crown.
Between 1814 and 1815, as the Peninsular War concluded, Loyalist forces began reconquering territory. With an army of 10,000 men sent from Spain under General Morillo, Fernando VII’s authority was restored, except in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata, which had been independent since 1810.
Second Stage (1816-1825)
The second phase saw the final emancipation of the former colonies through two parallel campaigns, demonstrating Spain’s helplessness due to a lack of arms and resources. In 1816, the United Provinces of South America were formed in the former Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. From this territory, General José de San Martín organized an army to cross the Andes. After Spanish defeats in the battles of Chacabuco (1817) and Maipú (1818), Chile gained independence. Royalists were defeated in Boyacá (1819), leading to the creation of modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Only the Viceroyalty of Peru remained loyal to Spain, and its emancipation was activated from the outside.
In Mexico, independence was proclaimed in 1821, based on three guarantees: religion, unity, and independence. After the emancipation of the American colonies, Spain retained only Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Americas, and the Philippines in Asia.