The Impact of Motivation and Age on Second Language Acquisition
Affective Factors: Attitude & Motivation
Can Motivation Override Aptitude?
Motivation plays a crucial role in language learning success. High motivation can lead to greater achievements, making it a key factor in the learning process. This raises questions about the relationship between motivation and success: Is motivation the cause or consequence of success? What drives individuals to learn a second language (L2)?
Defining ‘Motivation’
The understanding of motivation in language learning has evolved through different historical stages:
- Social Psychological Period (1959-1990): Gardner’s research focused on instrumental and integrative orientations, exploring the practical and cultural reasons for language learning.
- Cognitive-Situated Period (the 90s): The emphasis shifted to self-determination theory, highlighting the importance of autonomy and control in motivation.
- Process-Oriented Period (2000-present): Dörnyei’s process model of L2 motivation views motivation as dynamic and context-dependent.
Social-Educational Model (Gardner)
Gardner’s model distinguishes between instrumental and integrative orientations:
- Instrumental Orientation: Learners are motivated by practical goals, such as career advancement.
- Integrative Orientation: Learners are driven by a desire to integrate into the L2 culture.
Gardner also introduced the concept of ‘integrativeness’, later expanded to include ‘international posture’ and ‘cultural interest orientation’.
Cognitive-Situated Period (90s): Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory posits that individuals are motivated by a need for autonomy and control over their actions. Activities perceived as self-initiated are more motivating. This theory led to the development of the intrinsic-extrinsic motivation model, which differentiates between motivation driven by personal interest (intrinsic) and external rewards (extrinsic).
Process-Oriented Period (Present): Process Model of L2 Motivation (Dörnyei)
Dörnyei’s model emphasizes the dynamic nature of motivation, recognizing that it changes over time and is influenced by context, situation, and tasks. The model distinguishes between different levels of motivation:
- Task Motivation: Motivation related to specific tasks.
- Situational Motivation: Motivation influenced by the learning environment.
- Global Motivation: Overall motivation towards language learning.
L2 Motivational Self-System
This system highlights the role of an individual’s ideal L2 self in motivation. It consists of three components:
- Ideal L2 Self: Who we aspire to be as L2 speakers.
- Ought-to L2 Self: Who others expect us to be as L2 speakers.
- L2 Learning Experience: How the learning environment and experiences influence motivation.
‘Integrativeness’ refers to the drive to bridge the gap between the actual self and the ideal L2 self. Motivation is seen as a combination of integrativeness, positive attitudes, and intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Findings and Implications
Research indicates a positive correlation between motivation and L2 achievement. Studies have also shown that intrinsic motivation is consistently associated with higher levels of achievement, while controlling instructional settings can erode intrinsic motivation. These findings highlight the importance of fostering intrinsic motivation and creating a supportive learning environment.
Motivation in the Classroom
Teachers can influence motivation through various strategies:
- Promoting a friendly and engaging learning context.
- Designing motivating tasks.
- Encouraging self-assurance and a sense of success.
It’s important to remember that motivation is not constant and requires ongoing effort to maintain. Teachers should strive to generate and sustain motivation throughout the learning process.
Biological & Psychological/Behavioral Factors: Age
Age is a significant factor that can explain individual differences in language acquisition. It influences several aspects of the learning process:
1. Route of Acquisition
Age of acquisition (AoA) does not affect the order of acquisition. Learners of all ages follow the same developmental path, regardless of their AoA or first language (L1).
2. Acquisition Process
The way children and adults learn languages differs. Children tend to acquire language implicitly and unconsciously, while adults rely more on explicit and declarative learning processes.
3. Rate of Acquisition
While children may initially progress faster in naturalistic settings, research suggests that adults can achieve higher levels of ultimate attainment in formal learning environments. The rate of acquisition is influenced by various factors, including the learning context and individual differences.