The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: From Hominization to Al-Andalus

Posted on Oct 20, 2024 in History

1. The Iberian Peninsula in Pre-Roman Times

1.1 The Hominization Process in the Iberian Peninsula

Human evolution began in Africa about five million years ago. The first hominids to leave Africa and spread through Asia and the Near East were Homo ergaster, who evolved into Homo erectus. The evolutionary process in Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula, began around one million years ago. Key stages include:

  • Homo antecessor (about 800,000 years ago): Fossils found in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos). They were tall and strong, with a small brain and facial features similar to modern humans. They practiced cannibalism.
  • Homo heidelbergensis (300,000 years ago): Numerous fossils found in the Sima de los Huesos at Atapuerca.
  • Homo neanderthalensis (80,000 – 30,000 years ago): They were similar to modern humans but not direct ancestors. They created sophisticated tools, used fire, and buried their dead. They lived in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.
  • Homo sapiens (Cro-Magnon): Replaced Homo neanderthalensis around 30,000 years ago. This species originated in Africa and migrated to Europe.

1.2 Pre-Roman Peoples

The Kingdom of Tartessos was the first state in the Iberian Peninsula. It had a strong agricultural, livestock, mineral, and commercial base and a hierarchical society with a monarchy. It disappeared in the 5th century BC, and the Turdetani culture emerged in the same area. Later, the Iberian Peninsula was divided into two main areas:

  • The Iberian Area: Located in the south and east, it was inhabited by Iberians who had contact with the Greeks and Phoenicians. They had a developed economy, engaged in trade, and used currency. Their society was stratified based on wealth and power, with a state-like organization and monarchical forms of government. They were known for their sculpture, including the Lady of Elche.
  • The Celtic Area: Located in the north, central, and western parts of the peninsula, it was inhabited by Celts who entered through the Pyrenees. They were less developed than the Iberians. Their economy was based on agriculture and livestock, with limited trade and no currency. They were organized into clans and lineages, led by a chieftain and a council of elders. They lived in fortified settlements (castros) and had a pre-state political organization.
  • Celtiberians: Indigenous Celts who merged with the invading Celts and adopted their culture.

1.3 Colonization: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians

The Mediterranean zone of the Iberian Peninsula attracted settlers from different origins: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians, who sought access to metals and other resources.

  • Phoenicians: Arrived in the 9th century BC and founded colonies, mainly near the Strait of Gibraltar, including Gadir (Cádiz) in 800 BC, followed by Málaga and Almuñécar. They introduced the alphabet, currency, ironwork, textiles, salted fish, and the potter’s wheel. After the fall of Tyre, Carthage took control of Phoenician trade in the Mediterranean.
  • Greeks: Established the colony of Massilia (Marseille) and, from there, founded colonies on the Catalan coast, such as Emporion (Ampurias) and Rhode (Rosas) around the 6th century BC. They introduced their currency, alphabet, urban structures, and possibly certain crops.
  • Carthaginians: After their defeat in the First Punic War against Rome, they expanded into the Iberian Peninsula and established their capital in Carthago Nova (Cartagena). Their expansion led to the Second Punic War, which resulted in the Roman occupation of the peninsula.

2. Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom

1.4 Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula

The Roman conquest began in the 3rd century BC and ended in the 1st century BC. It can be divided into three stages:

  • First Stage (218-197 BC): Began with the Second Punic War, resulting in the occupation of the Iberian area (Levante and south).
  • Second Stage (154-133 BC): Conquest of the central and western parts of the peninsula. The Romans faced resistance from the Lusitanians, led by Viriathus, and the Celtiberians, who defended Numantia until its fall in 133 BC.
  • Third Stage (29-19 BC): The Cantabrian Wars under Emperor Augustus, leading to the subjugation of the Galicians, Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques. These campaigns were characterized by strong resistance from the northern tribes.

1.5 Romanization and its Legacy

Romanization was the process of assimilation of Roman culture and way of life by the conquered peoples. It was a gradual process, with the Iberian area being the most Romanized. The Romans implemented several measures to consolidate their power:

  • Urbanization: Existing cities in the Iberian area became dependent on Rome, while new cities were founded in other parts of the peninsula.
  • Recruitment of Auxiliaries: Indigenous peoples were recruited into the Roman army, facilitating contact with Romans and the possibility of obtaining Roman citizenship, which granted privileges and rights, including land ownership.
  • Colonies: Romans settled in colonies built on confiscated land, spreading the Roman way of life.
  • Language and Law: Latin became the common language, and Roman law, religion, art, and education were introduced.

The 1st century AD saw a significant contribution of Hispanic figures to Roman culture, particularly from the Iberian area:

  • Baetica: Seneca, Lucan, Columella, and Pomponius Mela.
  • Ebro Valley: Quintilian and Martial.

1.7 The Visigothic Monarchy

The Visigoths entered the Iberian Peninsula as federates of Rome. After the fall of Rome and their defeat by the Franks, they established their kingdom in the peninsula. The Visigothic monarchy was elective, with the king chosen by the magnates and later by the prelates. This led to internal conflicts and power struggles.

Key institutions included:

  • Aula Regia: A council of elders that advised the king.
  • Officium Palatinum: A core group of magnates who managed the central administration and the royal household.

The Visigoths maintained the Roman provincial division, with a duke governing each province. Provinces were further divided into territories ruled by counts or judges.

King Reccared converted to Catholicism in the Third Council of Toledo, achieving religious unity and gaining the support of the Hispano-Roman aristocracy and the Church. The Councils of Toledo, initially ecclesiastical assemblies, gained legislative power. Recceswinth codified existing laws into the Liber Iudiciorum.

Territorial unification was achieved with the conquest of the northwest (Suebi), north (Basques), and south (Byzantine Empire).

3. Al-Andalus: The Muslim Era

2.1 The Muslim Conquest

The Visigothic kingdom was weakened by internal conflicts. After the death of King Witiza, Roderick seized the throne, leading to a civil war. The supporters of Witiza’s son, Agila, sought help from the Muslims. In 711, the governor of North Africa sent an expedition led by Tariq, composed mainly of Berbers. They defeated King Roderick at the Battle of Guadalete.

Musa joined Tariq’s forces, and the peninsula was quickly conquered (712-714), except for the Cantabrian and Pyrenean regions. The Muslims were tolerant of Christians and Jews, considered “People of the Book.”

Two methods of conquest were used:

  • Unconditional Surrender: Those who resisted and were defeated lost all their rights.
  • Capitulation: Those who surrendered peacefully retained their property rights and paid tribute. This was the most common method.

Arabs settled in fertile lands, while Berbers, recently Islamized North Africans, settled in the highlands and mountains. This unequal distribution led to the Berber Revolt in 741. Syrian troops were brought in to quell the rebellion and settled in the peninsula.

2.2 The Emirate and Caliphate of Córdoba

Valiato or Dependent Emirate (714-756)

The Iberian Peninsula was a province of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus, ruled by an emir. This period was marked by political instability and military campaigns. Key defeats included the Battle of Covadonga (which ensured Asturian independence) and the Battle of Poitiers (which halted Muslim expansion into France).

Independent Emirate (756-929)

In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads. Abd-al-Rahman I, an Umayyad survivor, fled to Al-Andalus and proclaimed himself emir, establishing the capital in Córdoba. The emirate gained political independence from the Abbasids but remained religiously dependent. This period saw consolidation and reorganization of Muslim rule.

Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031)

In 929, Abd-al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph, achieving full political and religious independence. This marked the zenith of Muslim power in Spain, particularly under Al-Hakam II. Almanzor, a powerful military leader, established a de facto military dictatorship. He launched raids against the Christian kingdoms. After his death in 1002, the caliphate disintegrated into taifa kingdoms.

2.3 The Taifa Kingdoms

After the fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031, the first taifa kingdoms emerged. These small kingdoms were often at war with each other, and the weaker ones were absorbed by the stronger ones. Due to their military weakness, they paid tribute (parias) to the Christian kingdoms. Despite their political fragmentation, they remained economically and culturally prosperous.

The Christian conquest of Toledo in 1085 prompted the taifas to seek help from the Almoravids, who defeated Alfonso VI at the Battle of Sagrajas (1086). However, the Almoravids eventually unified the taifa kingdoms and imposed a more intolerant form of Islam. Their rule weakened, and the second taifa kingdoms emerged in 1145.

The Almohads, another North African dynasty, arrived in 1146 and unified the taifa kingdoms in 1172, making Seville their capital. They initially achieved victories against the Christians but were defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. The Almohads’ intolerance led to the emergence of the third taifa kingdoms, which were gradually conquered by the Christians, except for the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.

2.5 Al-Andalus: Social and Economic Organization

Agriculture remained the economic base of Al-Andalus. The Muslims introduced improved irrigation techniques, new crops (citrus fruits, rice, sugarcane), and revitalized urban life. Cities were structured with a central medina (containing the main mosque and souk), surrounded by residential areas and suburbs.

Crafts flourished, particularly textiles (silk brocades, wool, cotton, and linen), leatherwork, pottery, and glassmaking. Papermaking was introduced. Trade was extensive, facilitated by Muslim control of the Mediterranean and Sudanese gold. The dinar (gold) and dirham (silver) were the main currencies.

Society was divided into Muslims and non-Muslims:

  • Muslims:
    • Arab aristocracy
    • Berbers (settled in less fertile areas)
    • Muladies (Hispanics who converted to Islam)
  • Non-Muslims:
    • Jews
    • Mozarabs (Christians living under Muslim rule)
  • Slaves:
    • Saqaliba (Slavs)
    • Black Africans (often used for domestic service)

2.6 Al-Andalus: Thought and Culture

From the late 8th century, the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence prevailed in Al-Andalus. It emphasized a strict interpretation of the Quran and limited philosophical thought. However, from the mid-9th century, Al-Andalus experienced a cultural golden age, particularly in Córdoba, which became a center of learning in science, literature, and philosophy.

Muslims transmitted Greek and Indian scientific knowledge to the West and developed their own scholarship. They introduced the current numbering system. After the fall of the caliphate, cultural activity continued under the patronage of rulers.

Important figures include:

  • Ibn Hazm (author of The Ring of the Dove)
  • Ibn Tufail
  • Averroes (commentator on Aristotle)
  • Maimonides (Jewish philosopher and physician)
  • Ibn Zamrak (poet of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada)

The Almoravids and Almohads imposed a more restrictive intellectual climate, but the 12th century saw a revival of Aristotelian thought, particularly through the works of Averroes and Maimonides. The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada also produced significant cultural achievements, exemplified by the poetry of Ibn Zamrak, which adorns the Alhambra.