The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus & Christian Kingdoms
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus
Political Evolution: Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Córdoba
Taking advantage of the internal crisis of the Visigoth kingdom, engulfed in a power struggle, Berber Muslim troops led by Tariq crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in 711, beginning the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The conquered territory became a new province or emirate, Al-Andalus. Until 756, the Umayyad family ruled the empire from Damascus. In that year, the Abbasids seized power, moving the capital to Baghdad. An Umayyad escaped and took refuge in the Iberian Peninsula, seizing power in Córdoba and causing a political break with Baghdad. With Abderraman III in 929, the Caliphate began. He proclaimed himself Caliph to strengthen his power. His powerful army of Berbers was led by Al-Mansur.
11th-Century Crisis: Taifa Kingdoms and Northern Empires
Taifa: Small kingdoms created after the breakup of the Caliphate. This political structure emerged after the conflicts following Al-Mansur’s death. In the south were Taifa kingdoms of Berber origin, in the central area of Arab origin, and in the east, Slavic ones. Taking advantage of this Muslim weakness, Christians advanced. The Taifa kingdoms sought help from the Almoravids. From 1090 to 1147, the Almoravids crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to help the fragmented Taifa kingdoms and unify them. The fall of the Almohad empire allowed Christians to take over Andalusian territory, except for the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, until its reconquest in 1492.
Economic and Social Organization
The economy was urban, based on trade and currency. New irrigation techniques and products were introduced in agriculture. Craftsmanship was the economic base of cities. There was significant mining and commercial activity involving agricultural products, crafts, and international luxury goods. The monetary system consisted of two currencies: the gold dinar and the silver dirham. Society was divided into three groups: Arab Muslims, the ruling elite with political and economic power and the best lands; Berbers, marginalized; and Hispano-Gothic Muladis, converted to Islam. Then there were non-Muslims: Mozarabs (Christians) and Jews, who had freedom of religion but paid a tax. Finally, there were slaves.
Cultural Legacy
Muslims introduced cultural elements into the Iberian Peninsula and assimilated others from their conquests in the East and West. In science, they introduced trigonometric principles, algebra, and the abacus. In philosophy, Averroes is credited with creating a mathematics library and replacing Roman numerals with the Indian numbering system. In architecture, the horseshoe arch and calligraphic and vegetal motifs stand out. Two outstanding works are the Mosque of Córdoba and the Palace of Medina Azahara.
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Christian Kingdoms
First Pockets of Resistance
Between the 8th and 10th centuries, pockets of resistance appeared, arising from the evolution of less Romanized societies that were beginning to take shape as states. They emerged in the northern peninsula: the first in 722 was the Kingdom of Asturias, which managed to repel the Muslims to the Douro River. In the Pyrenees were the Kingdom of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre, which initially established a feudal oligarchy with the Caliphate but became independent under the Jiménez dynasty, allying with the Kingdom of León. Similarly, the Catalan counties of the Carolingian province allied with the Caliphate of Córdoba, starting a policy of expansion until their unification with Aragon in 1137.
The Main Stages of the Reconquista
The Reconquista’s advance followed geographic boundaries and was not just a military matter but also related to repopulation. The stages were: occupation of the right bank of the Douro (8th-10th centuries); occupation of the left bank of the Douro, from the plateau to the central system, coinciding with the emergence of the Taifa kingdoms (11th century); the Ebro and Tagus valleys (mid-11th to mid-12th centuries); the core of the Iberian system (until 1212); the Guadalquivir valley (until 1264); and finally, the area around the Strait of Gibraltar.
Forms of Land Occupation and Influence on Property
Four models of land occupation existed: Presura (8th-10th centuries, from the Pyrenees to the Douro), predominantly small-medium property and Crown property; the Concejil system (11th century until the end of the Reconquista, in Castile and Aragon), where the king moved populations to newly conquered and dangerous border areas, granting them charters and favoring small-medium property; the system of allotments (beginning in the 12th century, widespread in the 13th), where the Crown granted land to soldiers who participated in the conquest, dominated by large estates but with some small-medium properties; and donadios, gifts from the king.
Cultural Diversity: Christians, Muslims, and Jews
Medieval Iberian society was plural, with Christians, Muslims, and Jews living in the same territory. Coexistence was difficult, with little tolerance. It was a largely illiterate society, with only a minority having access to culture. Each group produced works related to their religion. The School of Translators was important, where Christian, Jewish, and Muslim intellectuals collaborated. During the reign of Alfonso X, Castilian became the primary language in the religious sphere.