The Iberian Peninsula: From Prehistory to the Middle Ages
Process of Humanization in the Iberian Peninsula
Paleolithic Era
Lower Paleolithic:
Homo erectus, stone tools. 1994 Atapuerca human fossils of Homo antecessor (780,000 years old). Predatory economy of small human groups, nomads, use of stone tools.
Middle Paleolithic:
Homo neanderthalensis, perfected stone tools and practiced funeral rites.
Upper Paleolithic:
Homo sapiens, advanced culture, refined stone and bone tools. Rock Art sites in Altamira, Tito Bustillo, etc.
Pre-Roman Settlements
1st Millennium BC: Iron Age and Pre-Roman Groups
Southern and Eastern Iberia: Contact with Greeks and Carthaginians. Advanced development.
- Tartessians: Western Andalusia, poorly understood. Relationship with Phoenicians (trade of manufactured metal products). 9th and 7th centuries BC.
- Iberians: Divided peoples with a shared culture. Mediterranean coast and Ebro Valley. Greek and Carthaginian influence. Developed settlements with agriculture, livestock, and trade. Complex social organization, advanced culture (written language) and Greek artistic influence.
Central and Western Iberia: Diverse peoples. Basic economy based on agriculture and livestock. Fortified urban settlements. (Celtiberians)
Northern and Northwestern Iberia: (Galicians, Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques). Limited development, no writing system, subsistence economy without money or trade.
1st Millennium BC: Settlement of Mediterranean Peoples
(Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians). Trade with indigenous peoples. Introduced pottery, wine, and oil. Exported metals and salted goods. Technical, economic, cultural, and artistic influences.
- Phoenicians: Established colonies on the Andalusian coast. 8th century BC.
- Greeks: 7th century BC. Colonies on the Levantine coast (Empúries).
- Carthaginians: North Africa. Replaced Phoenician merchants in the 3rd and 4th centuries BC. Colonies in Ibiza and Cartagena.
Stages of the Roman Conquest of the Peninsula
Lasted 200 years, from the 3rd to the 1st century BC.
Stages of Conquest:
- Mediterranean Coastline and Guadalquivir Valley (218-206 BC): Rome against Carthage. Hannibal conquered the south. Treaty signed with Saguntum (allied with Rome). Publius Cornelius Scipio conquered the coastline, Ebro, and Guadalquivir valleys (easy conquest).
- Plateau (155-133 BC): Central and western Iberia. Celtiberian Wars, siege of Numantia. Lusitanian Wars in the west, Viriathus killed, resistance ceased. Rome dominated the entire peninsula up to the Douro and Ebro rivers.
- North and Northwest (27-19 BC): Augustus completed the conquest against Galicians, Cantabrians, and Asturians. New cities and public works. Northwest had gold deposits.
Level of Romanization: South and east similar to Rome, Baetica highly urbanized, lower plateau with developed urban life, north with superficial Romanization. Introduction of Latin. Polytheistic religion. Christianity spread in the empire from the 4th century AD.
Migration Period. Visigothic Kingdom
Barbarian peoples settled in the Roman Empire. In 409, Suebi, Alans, and Vandals invaded Hispania. Barbarians settled in Spain. Independent monarchy until 711. The 3rd Council of Toledo addressed religious and legal differences.
Capital in Toledo. Kings advised by a court (Palatine Office and Royal Council). The Church held Councils where bishops made laws. Kingdom administration was through Dukes (provinces) and Counts (cities). There was a feudalization process (nobles gained more power over peasants). Architecture (Romanesque churches with reused materials) and Visigothic script.
Development Policy. Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Córdoba
Tariq and Musa led the Muslim conquest, with less than 100,000 men, arriving in the Peninsula in 711. Defeat of King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Visigoths made pacts with the Muslims.
A small part of the invaders were Arabs and Syrians, the majority were Berbers. Muslims settled in Córdoba (new capital) and the northern plateau. Berber revolts emerged.
In 755, Al-Andalus became an independent kingdom when Abd al-Rahman I seized power and proclaimed himself Emir.
- Independent Emirate (755-929): Reign of Abd al-Rahman I, fighting against Christians in the north and Arab and Berber factions. Golden age (economic and cultural development of Al-Andalus). Period of crisis due to political and social conflicts and Christian expansion.
- Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031): Abd al-Rahman III overcame the crisis and contained the northern Christian kingdoms. In 929, he proclaimed himself Caliph. Al-Hakam II consolidated the Caliphate (economic and military development, construction of the Medina Azahara palace). Hisham II ceded power to Al-Mansur, who exerted control and carried out military campaigns against Christians in the north. After his death, the Caliphate fragmented into Taifa kingdoms.
Crisis of the 11th Century. Taifa Kingdoms and Northern Empires
Hisham II gave way to Al-Mansur, who fought against Christians. The Taifa kingdoms (Seville, Granada, Toledo, Badajoz, Zaragoza, and Valencia) were weaker than the Christians. They paid tribute (parias) to the Christian kingdoms in exchange for peace.
Alfonso VI conquered the Taifa of Toledo in 1085. Other Taifa kingdoms sought help from the Almoravid Empire.
The Almohads conquered the Taifa kingdoms, but the Christian forces defeated them at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. The Kingdom of Granada resisted until 1492.
Economic and Social Organization
Al-Andalus was a developed urban society: Crafts (workshops), Trade (souks). Trade facilitated currency circulation, including long-distance trade (land and sea). Importation of slaves, furs, and manufactured goods. Exportation of leather and silk fabrics. Agriculture experienced development with new irrigation techniques (Levante and Ebro Valley).
Society was divided into Muslims (Berbers and Muladi), Mozarabs, and Jews. Religious and ethnic divisions.
Cultural Heritage
Al-Andalus was influenced by Islam. The official language was Arabic. Mozarabs and Muladi spoke Romance languages. The cultural peak was during the Emirate of Abd al-Rahman II and the Caliphate of Al-Hakam II, who brought writers, historians, philosophers, and physicians to their courts to develop culture in exchange for protection.
Early Christian Pockets of Resistance
- Kingdom of Asturias: King Pelayo. Legendary Battle of Covadonga. Capital moved to León. The County of Castile emerged on the border, becoming independent under Fernán González.
- Kingdom of Navarre: Western Pyrenees, capital in Pamplona.
- Aragonese Counties: Aragón, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza.
- Catalan Counties: Southern border (Marca Hispanica). County of Barcelona, Count Wilfred the Hairy gained independence.