The Great War, Russian Revolution, and Spanish Monarchy (1902-1931)

Posted on Nov 8, 2025 in History

The First World War: Causes

On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, paid a visit to Sarajevo, where he was assassinated. Austria and Germany declared war on Serbia. In response, there was a chain sequence of war declarations among major European countries. Two main groups were formed:

  1. The Central Powers: Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
  2. The Allies: Britain, Russia, France, Belgium, Serbia, and later joined by the U.S., Italy, Greece, Romania, and Portugal.

However, the real origin of the war lay in the high level of competitiveness and eagerness among major imperialist powers.

Phases of the First World War

The war crossed four main phases:

1914: The War of Movement

This phase is known as guerrilla warfare, characterized by a German Blitzkrieg (lightning war), fighting on two simultaneous fronts: the Western Front (attempting to occupy France and Belgium) and the Eastern Campaign against Russia. This strategy failed due to the rapid incorporation of England.

1914–1916: Positional Warfare

This stage is called positional warfare. Trenches were established, leading to the bloodiest battles (Verdun, Somme). Armies were evenly matched, and neither side gained a decisive victory.

1917: The Turning Point

This was a very important year because the U.S. entered the war on the side of the Allies.

1918: The End of the War

Germany signed a treaty with Russia because Russia had withdrawn from the war the previous year, following the outbreak of the Communist Revolution. The Allies organized an offensive on all fronts, utilizing tanks and aviation. The war ended on November 11, 1918.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919)

In 1919, the Allies met in Versailles and imposed harsh sanctions on Germany:

  • Territorial losses.
  • Limitation of its army.
  • Occupation of part of its territory by France.

Germany considered the treaty unjust, fueling a desire for revenge.

Consequences of the First World War

The war resulted in profound consequences:

  • There were millions of casualties.
  • Unemployment increased, and prices rose.
  • European countries had to borrow heavily, leading the USA to become the first world power.
  • The dire economic situation created a revolutionary climate, marked by labor strikes and poor social welfare.

The Russian Revolution

In the early twentieth century, Russia was an extremely poor country, ruled totally by Tsar Nicholas II. In 1905, social malaise led to a revolt that forced the Tsar to renounce some of his power to a parliament, the Duma, and to undertake some social reforms.

World War I increased the population’s suffering, exacerbating famine, and millions of peasants were mobilized. The populace grew increasingly hungry and disappointed by the news that came from the front. The Soviets (councils of workers, peasants, and soldiers) were formed, demanding changes.

The February Revolution (1917)

In February 1917, the Tsar abdicated, and power passed into the hands of a caretaker government, led by the moderate socialist, Kerensky.

The October Revolution (1917)

In October of the same year, due to the slow pace of land reform and the Kerensky government’s decision to continue in the First World War, the radical socialists, or Bolsheviks, revolted and seized the government. Lenin formed a new government, which:

  • Signed peace with Germany.
  • Approved the expropriation of large agricultural properties.
  • Gave control of the factories to the workers.

These measures created controversy and started a brutal Civil War that lasted until 1921, ending with the victory of the Bolsheviks.

The Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902–1931)

The reign of Alfonso XIII was marked by the Moroccan War in foreign policy and domestic political clashes due to strikes (The Tragic Week of Barcelona in 1909 and the first general strike of 1917).

In September 1923, the political crisis worsened, and General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup. During Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, the banking system was stabilized, the problem in Morocco was resolved, and public order was reestablished.

The Spanish economy experienced a phase of widespread international prosperity, but the Crash of 1929 caused economic, social, and political problems—which the dictator had postponed but not resolved—to resurface. Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930. King Alfonso XIII was forced out of Spain a year later, on April 14, 1931, the date of the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.