The Glorious Revolution of 1868 in Spain: A Turning Point
The Glorious Revolution of 1868
Introduction: The Revolutionary Sexenio
The origin of the Revolutionary Sexenio (1868-1874) can be traced back to September 19, 1868, when the Spanish fleet stationed in the Bay of Cadiz revolted against the government of Queen Isabel II. Simultaneously, Juan Prim joined the rebels, and revolutionary boards were swiftly established in numerous Spanish cities, bolstering the rebellion. This widespread uprising led to the isolation of the government and the Crown, a situation further exacerbated by the defeat of government troops at the Battle of Alcolea on October 29, 1868. Following this decisive battle, Isabel II was forced into exile in France.
The success of the Spanish Revolution of 1868, also known as La Gloriosa (The Glorious), stemmed from a confluence of political, social, and economic crises plaguing the country. The political crisis had been brewing throughout Isabel II’s reign, characterized by a constitutional system that was not genuinely adhered to and lacked true representation. Of the two major political parties, the Moderates consistently supported Isabel II. However, after over two decades in power, they had become stagnant and lacked fresh ideas. The social crisis arose from a surplus of labor and insufficient job opportunities, leading to the emergence of a disillusioned urban proletariat grappling with poor living conditions. The general economic crisis of 1868 served as the catalyst that united and mobilized this social group. The economic crisis acted as the trigger for La Gloriosa. While it began as a classic military coup, it quickly evolved into a full-fledged revolution. Although the revolution was initiated and ultimately led by the bourgeoisie, it witnessed significant participation from the disgruntled masses.
The Provisional Government and the Choice of the Monarch
Following the triumph of the revolution, divisions emerged among the rebels, revealing that the 1868 revolution encompassed multiple agendas. The central struggle was between the factions led by Prim (progressive) and Serrano (unionist). The provisional government, headed by Serrano and Prim, promptly implemented a reform program. They immediately recognized freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and association, and adopted universal male suffrage. Educational reform and the democratization of local and provincial councils were also enacted. Furthermore, elections for a Constituent Assembly were called—a historic first in Spain, conducted under universal male suffrage for men over 25 years of age. The elections resulted in a victory for the coalition of unionists, progressives, and a small group of democrats known as the Cimbri.
The Constitution of 1869, drafted by this assembly, established a new system with broad freedoms, surpassing those of other contemporary liberal European nations. It included an extensive bill of rights, notably incorporating the right to freedom of residence, education, and religion, as well as the sanctity of the mail. The monarchy was retained as the form of government, with the king holding executive power and the ability to dissolve Parliament. However, the king’s authority was exercised through his ministers, and laws were made in Parliament, with the king only responsible for their enactment.
With the 1869 Constitution approved, a new conflict arose over the selection of a king, as each party sought to nominate a candidate who would favor their interests. Ultimately, the principle of merit prevailed, and Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, was chosen. However, the true driving force behind his selection was General Prim, who had spearheaded the negotiations.
The final legislative achievement of the 1868 revolution was the radical shift in economic policy. The aim was to establish legislation that would facilitate the introduction of capitalism and safeguard the economic interests of the bourgeoisie. This period’s economic policy was characterized by the advocacy of free trade and the opening of the Spanish market to foreign capital. The goal was to foster competition and free enterprise, thereby transforming and modernizing the country’s commercial and industrial structures. The most significant measure in this regard was the Basic Law Tariff (Figuerola Tariff), adopted in July 1869, which marked a departure from the protectionist tradition that had dominated the Spanish economy throughout the 19th century. To reinforce this decision and in an attempt to unify and rationalize the monetary system, the peseta was established as the official currency. This latter change aimed to address the chaotic state of public finances, burdened by a substantial public debt.
The Reign of Amadeo I
The greatest misfortune to befall Amadeo I was the assassination of his principal supporter, General Prim. Prim had been the most capable of the revolutionary leaders and a figure of order who had managed to impose a degree of sanity amidst the rivalries of various political factions. His death shattered the 1868 coalition. Don Amadeo arrived in Madrid on January 2, 1871, and his first government, formed by a coalition of progressive, unionist, and democratic Cimbri, was led by the former regent, Serrano.