The Glorious Revolution of 1868: A Turning Point in Spanish History
The Glorious Revolution of 1868
Background
Topete’s pronouncement in 1868, along with the unstable political situation and the agricultural, industrial, and financial crises, ushered in the Glorious Revolution. This movement resulted from an alliance between Progressists, Unionists, and Democrats—a coalition formed in 1866 with the signing of the Ostend Manifesto—along with the presence of civil, bourgeois, and middle-class participants, to overthrow the Queen. The revolution was swift and resulted in a broad reform program.
The Democrats’ Role
The true revolutionary ideas came from the Democrats. They supported universal suffrage, tax abolition, and the defense of the middle and lower classes.
They organized political and military power to block the parliament that hindered progressive governance and address the economic situation. Revolutionary juntas and grassroots movements, protected by Democrats, were persecuted. The revolution ultimately resulted in a bourgeois society with an effective capitalist system and businessmen holding political power.
The Fall of the Monarchy
The Bravo Murillo government resigned and was replaced by a soldier. The Battle of Alcolea ensued, with Serrano’s rebel troops against the Queen’s loyal forces. The Queen lost and fled to France.
Power was handed over to the revolutionary junta, which governed the revolution. The revolutionary program consisted of establishing political and civil liberties, a secularized state, treasury reform, economic liberalization, and the rejection of the Bourbons.
The Provisional Government
The junta instructed Serrano to form a provisional government, which, after Prim’s arrival, dissolved the juntas, compensating members with positions in town councils, etc.
The provisional government consisted of five progressive ministers and four Unionists, excluding Democrats. Their first actions aimed to control the revolution: dissolving juntas, reorganizing the National Militia, disarming the Volunteers of Liberty, and restoring discipline in the army. Sagasta commanded the governors to maintain order. After this, they addressed popular demands and promises made on September 19th:
- Suppression of consumption tax
- Emancipation of children born to slaves after the revolution
- Decree of educational freedom and secondary education reform
- Decree of freedom of the press
The government showcased its reforms—universal suffrage, religious freedom, education, press, association, and assembly—in a manifesto. They added economic measures (creation of the peseta, Mining Act, and free trade tariff). This defined a conservative bourgeois social order shaped by the powerful.
Political Divisions and the 1869 Constitution
This rift between supporters of the provisional government and those who wanted more advanced reforms radicalized the Democratic Party into Federal Republicans and moderate Monarchists (Cimbri).
The government called municipal elections, with Republicans triumphing in 20 provincial capitals. In 1869, general elections resulted in a majority of Unionists and Liberals, focusing on developing a constitution.
Popular and rural class demands were ignored, leading to a popular revolt in Cadiz and the establishment of the Central Address of Workers’ Societies in Barcelona in 1868.
The provisional government created a constitution in 1869.
Form of State: Constitutional monarchy with national sovereignty and universal suffrage. A bicameral system, with a Senate and Congress elected by universal suffrage, divided the executive powers, requiring double confidence (crown-government); legislature; and judiciary, with courts and jury trials, operating independently. It included a multitude of rights, such as “Habeas Corpus” (Art. 3), right of association and assembly (Art. 17), non-denominational state (Art. 21), right of residence, education, expression, and inviolability of the home.
The Regency of Serrano and Prim
Form of Government: Monarchy. With Republican opposition, Serrano was appointed regent and Prim as head of government. They faced difficulties with executive power (war in Cuba, Alfonsino and Carlist opposition, Republican harassment, and discontent among popular sectors).
Prim’s regency was marked by uprisings and revolutions, both bourgeois and popular, including the announcement of the Third Carlist War and instability due to the war in Cuba.
The “Federal Charter of Tortosa” was signed, demanding a federal democratic republic and autonomy for municipalities and provinces. Prim suppressed the uprising and dealt with banditry, applying the “Law of Flight,” which sparked parliamentary debate.
Amadeo I and Growing Instability
Amadeo I’s main supporter, Prim, died on the day Amadeo arrived in Spain. Amadeo was despised by military leaders and aristocrats. During his reign, he faced opposition from the bourgeoisie and workers due to his economic policies; from peasants and workers due to consumption taxes; and politically, from the Carlists in the Second Carlist War (1872-1876), Democrats, and the Liberal and Moderate parties. He was supported by the Liberal Union and the Progressives.
The king commissioned Serrano to form a government. The king’s main problem was the internal division within the Unionist and Progressive parties that supported him, due to personalism and bipartisanship. Within this division, there was a progressive faction, led by the more conservative Sagasta (Constitutionalists), and a more reformist faction that supported the monarchy and the republic, led by Ruiz Zorrilla (Cimbri). These two factions clashed, leading to the crisis of 1871. The king commissioned Zorrilla to form a government, decree an amnesty, and secure a loan to stabilize the Treasury. Zorrilla was later replaced by Sagasta due to military pressure.
Sagasta struggled to preside over the government with only Unionist support and failed to seek alliances with Democrats. The government’s declining prestige forced Amadeo to replace Sagasta with Serrano, whose term was short-lived due to the signing of pardons for Carlist radicals, deemed unworthy by the military. Serrano was replaced by Zorrilla.
Political and social unrest, along with the Second Carlist War and the Ten Years’ War, forced Amadeo to abdicate on February 10th.
The problem of choosing a Bourbon king arose. Candidates included Fernando de Coburg, Montpensier, Duke Leopold of Hohenzollern, Espartero, and Amadeo of Aosta. Amadeo, Prim’s choice to avoid the proclamation of a republic, was ultimately elected.