The Generation of ’98 and ’27 in Spanish Literature
The Generation of ’98
The Crisis of 1898
The end of the 19th century brought a significant crisis for Spain: the loss of its last colonies, Cuba and the Philippines. The Spanish-American War in 1898 resulted in a devastating defeat for Spain and the signing of the Treaty of Paris. This treaty granted Cuba independence and placed the Philippines and Puerto Rico under US control.
This event triggered a wave of outrage and protest in Spain, which found expression in literature through the writers of the Generation of ’98.
What is a Literary Generation?
A literary generation is a group of writers who share similar birth years, are influenced by a significant historical event, confront common problems, and react to them in comparable ways.
The Generation of ’98: A Closer Look
Characteristics:
- Group of Writers: Miguel de Unamuno, Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Pío Baroja, Azorín, and Antonio Machado are considered its main members.
- Similar Birth Dates: All were born between 1864 and 1875.
- Influential Event: The Spanish decline and the Disaster of 1898 profoundly impacted them.
- Shared Concerns: They grappled with Spain’s negative image, characterized by apathy and a lack of national pride.
- Similar Reactions: They analyzed Spain’s problems and sought solutions.
Seeking the Essence of Spain:
In response to the prevailing apathy, these writers embarked on a quest to discover the true essence or soul of Spain and the meaning of life. They explored this through:
- Literature: They drew inspiration from past literary models like Gonzalo de Berceo, Jorge Manrique, Cervantes, and Quevedo, as well as Larra, who had previously addressed similar issues.
- History: They delved into Spanish history to uncover the country’s core values and the roots of its current problems.
- Landscape: They found the austere Castilian landscape to be a reflection of the soul and essence they sought. They meticulously described the poverty, simplicity, and harsh climate of the Castilian plateau, hoping to find the soul of Spain within it.
Reactions to the Loss of Colonies:
Following the loss of the American colonies, the members of the Generation of ’98 reacted in similar ways:
- Rebellion and Protest: They rebelled against Spain’s backwardness and proposed solutions for the reconstruction of agriculture, education, culture, and the economy. They also advocated for Spain’s integration into Europe.
- Exaltation of National Values: They developed a deeper understanding and appreciation of Spain, leading them to promote its national and patriotic values.
- Literary Style: Their reformist spirit influenced their writing style, characterized by:
- Simple and expressive language, breaking away from the ornate rhetoric of the time.
- Precise vocabulary, including learned, foreign, and popular words.
- Predominance of short, concise sentences, avoiding lengthy paragraphs and complex subordination.
Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)
Born in Bilbao, Unamuno studied Philosophy in Madrid and became a professor of Greek at the University of Salamanca, where he served as rector for many years. His opposition to Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship led to his exile to Fuerteventura. He returned to Salamanca in 1930 and died there in 1936.
Unamuno is considered the most representative writer of the Generation of ’98. His peers admired his complex personality, profound thought, and passionate style.
Themes and Style:
Unamuno’s work is filled with philosophical concerns, particularly the fear of death and the longing for eternal life. The religious problem and the anguished search for God are recurring themes. His style is direct, robust, and precise, reflecting his desire to express his inner world and convince the reader. His passionate tone and use of word chains convey the complexity of his thoughts.
Literary Works:
- Novels: Aunt Tula, Abel Sanchez, San Manuel Bueno, Martyr, and Mist explore personal problems like the thirst for immortality, the tragic sense of life, and the struggle between reason and faith.
- Poetry: The Christ of Velázquez, Teresa, and Song reveal his deep religious concerns.
- Essays and Articles: Life of Don Quixote and Sancho, The Tragic Sense of Life, and The Agony of Christianity address his patriotic concerns and the future of humanity.
- Short Stories: The Mirror of Death.
- Plays: Soledad, Raquel, and The Other.
The Generation of ’27
A New Generation of Poets
The Generation of ’27 was a group of Spanish poets who emerged in the 1920s. They were influenced by both traditional Spanish poetry and avant-garde movements, particularly Surrealism.
Characteristics:
- Group of Writers: Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Gerardo Diego, Federico García Lorca, Rafael Alberti, Dámaso Alonso, Vicente Aleixandre, Miguel Hernández, and Luis Cernuda are considered its main representatives.
- Similar Birth Dates: The age difference between the youngest (Cernuda) and the oldest (Salinas) was only nine years.
- Influential Event: The group’s name comes from a tribute to Luis de Góngora held in Seville in 1927 to commemorate the tercentenary of his death. Juan Ramón Jiménez also exerted a significant influence on them.
- Shared Goal: They sought to develop a poetic language that could better express their chosen themes.
Features of the Generation of ’27:
Tradition and Modernity:
While seeking new poetic forms, they maintained a connection with Spanish literary traditions. They admired the poetic language of Góngora, classical Spanish authors, and popular forms like ballads. Alongside tradition, they embraced avant-garde movements, especially Surrealism, which explored the unconscious and aimed for absolute beauty.
Aesthetic Intention:
They sought beauty through imagery, aiming to eliminate anything that detracted from the poem’s aesthetic quality. They wanted to represent reality without resorting to mere description, focusing on the essence of poetry.
Themes:
They were interested in universal human themes like love, death, and fate, as well as popular songs and folklore.
Style:
They paid close attention to linguistic expression, striving for a lyrical and evocative language.
Versification:
They used both traditional stanzas (romance, song) and classical forms (sonnet, triolet). They also employed free verse and created rhythm through repetition of words, syntactic patterns, and parallelism of ideas.
Rafael Alberti (1902-1999)
Born in Puerto de Santa María, Cádiz, Alberti moved to Madrid at fifteen. He joined the Communist Party and was politically active during the Spanish Civil War. After the war, he lived in exile in Argentina and Italy. He returned to Spain after Franco’s death and became a Member of Congress for Cádiz. He received the Cervantes Prize in 1983.
Works:
Sailor on Land (1925) reflects his nostalgia for his homeland. He also wrote The Dawn of the Wallflower and The Lover. Concerning the Angels (1928) marks a break with traditional poetic language and incorporates surrealist techniques.
Federico García Lorca (1898-1936)
Born in Fuentevaqueros, Granada, Lorca studied Arts and Law at the University of Granada and also pursued music. In 1929, he traveled to New York, but his experience there was disillusioning. He returned to Spain the following year and founded La Barraca, a university student theater group, in 1932. He also traveled to Buenos Aires due to the success of his plays there. He was assassinated in Viznar, near Granada, in 1936.
Themes and Style:
Lorca possessed a captivating personality and extraordinary creativity. Despite his charm and intensity, a tragic tone and the presence of death permeate his poetry. He created original and powerful metaphors and images, often drawing on Andalusian folklore. His themes frequently explore sadness and tragedy.
Works:
His most important works include Songs, Gypsy Ballads, and Poem of the Cante Jondo. In Gypsy Ballads, he expresses empathy for marginalized figures like gypsies and bandits. His plays explore popular themes (Mariana Pineda) and passionate love (Blood Wedding, The House of Bernarda Alba, and Doña Rosita the Spinster).
Miguel Hernández (1910-1942)
Born in Orihuela, Hernández came from a humble family and worked in the fields as a child. He later worked in a shop and a notary’s office. He received limited formal education but cultivated his knowledge through reading. In 1934, he moved to Madrid, where he worked as a secretary and met poets like Aleixandre and Neruda. He fought on the Republican side during the Spanish Civil War. After the war, he was sentenced to death, later commuted to thirty years. He died of tuberculosis in prison in Alicante in 1942.
Style and Works:
Hernández’s poetry is passionate and fervent. His notable works include:
- The Lightning that Never Stops: Explores love as torture and conveys a tragic sense of life.
- Wind of the People: A book of political poems.
- El rayo que no cesa: Dedicated to Ramón Sijé after his death.
- Songbook and Ballad of Absences: A collection of poems written in prison, showcasing a new language and a stylistic shift cut short by his untimely death.