The Generation of ’98: A Spanish Renaissance
The Crisis of 1898
In 1898, Spain’s defeat against the United States led to the Treaty of Paris. This treaty forced Spain to relinquish its last overseas possessions (Cuba, Philippines, and Guam), triggering a national crisis. The defeat was seen as a symptom of the country’s deeper issues, which had been previously described metaphorically as a national illness. The disaster of ’98 highlighted the urgent need for modernization.
This “disease” was characterized by:
- Economic Backwardness: Industrialization was late and localized, leaving Spain primarily agrarian. The ruling class resisted industrialization, fearing the rise of a powerful bourgeoisie.
- Educational Delay: Illiteracy rates were significantly higher than the European average. The agrarian culture prioritized survival over education, perpetuating social immobility.
- Political Exhaustion: The Restoration system, based on alternating political parties, failed to address the nation’s problems. It was propped up by an oligarchy that manipulated elections for personal gain.
The Regeneracionismo movement aimed to modernize Spain through economic development and education. The Free Institution of Education, founded in 1876, championed academic freedom and rejected official dogma, foreshadowing the Regeneracionismo movement. Slogans like Joaquín Costa’s “school and pantry” emphasized the importance of education and development.
However, the Regeneracionismo movement faced several obstacles:
- Conservative Resistance: The Church, economic elite, and military opposed any change that threatened their social and political dominance.
- Labor Conflicts: Labor organizations, influenced by Marxism and anarchism, pressured the government with strikes and riots, exacerbating the sense of political weakness.
- Rise of Nationalisms: Peripheral nationalisms gained momentum during the crisis (e.g., the Basque Nationalist Party in 1895 and the Catalan Regional League in 1901).
The aftermath of the crisis inspired a sense of national tragedy and aimlessness, leading to an exaltation of genuinely Spanish themes. This included the personification of Spanish idealism and contradictions through Don Quixote, and evocative landscapes of Castile expressing the anguish of a nation yearning to join modern Europe.
Characteristics of the Generation of ’98
Azorín coined the term “Generation of ’98” to describe a group of authors who shared concerns, attitudes of protest, and a deep preoccupation with Spain. The initial group included Azorín himself, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Pío Baroja, who co-signed a manifesto in 1901 denouncing Spain’s situation. Other intellectuals like Miguel de Unamuno, Antonio Machado, and Ramón María del Valle-Inclán also joined the movement.
While some authors rejected the “Generation of ’98” label, the poet Pedro Salinas applied Petersen’s criteria for defining a generation:
- Similar Birth Years: Unamuno (1864) being the oldest and Machado (1875) the youngest.
- Shared Education: All were self-taught, shaping their thinking through independent reading.
- Personal Relationships: They frequented the same gatherings and contributed to the same newspapers and magazines.
- Shared Experience: The loss of the colonial empire.
- Intellectual Guide: Salinas proposed Nietzsche.
- Generational Language: Salinas identified the generation’s language with modernism (symbolism and Parnassianism), advocating for anti-rhetorical yet elegant expression.
- Rejection of the Previous Generation: The ’98 generation reacted against the realist and naturalist writers of the late 19th century.
Common characteristics of the Generation of ’98:
- Concern for Spain: A shared preoccupation with the country’s problems.
- Anti-Bourgeois Stance: Opposition to the Restoration from various ideologies (socialism and even anarchism).
- Call for Modernization: Advocating for Europeanization and modernization, denouncing Spain’s backwardness, lack of political direction, and oppression.
- Modern Essay: They contributed innovations to all genres, particularly the essay, which became their primary means of expressing ideas.