The Generation of ’98: A Literary Movement

Concept and Members of the Generation of ’98

The Generation of ’98 refers to a group of writers who, sensitized by the Spanish-American War of 1898 and attentive to the evolution of literary thought outside Spain, initiated a movement of social protest and renewal of Spanish letters. While the list of members can be extensive, there is general agreement that the following writers belong to this Generation:

• Miguel de Unamuno
• Ramiro de Maeztu
• Ángel Ganivet
• Pío Baroja
• José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín)
• Ramón María del Valle-Inclán
• Antonio Machado

There has been much debate on whether these authors constitute a true generation, fulfilling the “generational requirements” proposed by Julius Petersen (proximity in birth years, similar cultural background, personal coexistence, participation in collective acts, existence of a “generational event,” and a peculiar use of language). Although they share a similar age and participated in the same “generational event” (the Disaster of ’98), they lacked uniform training. Not all had close personal contact, nor can it be said that they had a leader, despite Unamuno’s prestige. It is also difficult to accept that they shared a common “generational language.” Therefore, many prefer to speak of a “spirit of ’98” rather than a generation.

It has also been discussed whether the Generation of ’98 and Modernism are two distinct realities or merely two aspects of the same generation. In any case, it should be noted that they share many similarities: defending national regeneration, the bourgeois origin of their members, the need to overcome realism, and total freedom for the artist. Ultimately, we can say that they represent two simultaneous expressions of the same internal crisis of the bourgeoisie, reacting to the same reality. Some, the Modernists, chose to escape into reverie, beauty, the past, or subjectivity, while others, the *noventayochistas*, decided to become involved in transformation.

Characteristics of the Generation of ’98

As mentioned, each member has more individual characteristics than a purely ideological literary aspect, on which they differ greatly. However, it can be said that the Generation is characterized by:

1. They all reflect the need for social and artistic regeneration of Spain, in crisis after the colonial disaster.
2. They maintain an inward-looking, unifying vision of Spain, expressing their love for it and taking Castile and the Castilian landscape as a symbol of that unity.
3. They express their rejection of bourgeois society, which they consider a failure.
4. They express anti-realist and anti-positivist sentiments.
5. They are ideologically influenced by European philosophical currents of the moment and by Spanish regenerationism.
6. They defend an idea of Europe, although almost every member proposed unique solutions.
7. They reclaim “primitive” writers and defend a sober purism of the Spanish language.

Themes

• The theme of Spain
• The defense of “eternal and spontaneous” Spain
• The land of Spain
• Spanish history
• The enduring values of Castile and Spain
• Existential concerns

Evolution of the Generation of ’98

Given the individualistic and iconoclastic nature of these writers, one cannot speak of a joint evolution, but rather of paradoxical and disparate paths. The “Group of Three” (Baroja, Azorín, and Maeztu) and Unamuno evolved from radical revolutionary youthful attitudes to conservative or even fully reactionary positions. In contrast, Antonio Machado and Valle-Inclán experienced a radically reverse process: from their initial conservative attitudes, they evolved into a mature commitment to the Second Republic and the Popular Front.