The French Revolution: Causes, Phases, and Impact
Causes of the French Revolution
Economic Causes
* Grave financial crisis due to state indebtedness * Poor harvests and rising food prices
Social Causes
* Privileged classes (nobility and clergy) clinging to their privileges * Bourgeoisie seeking greater political power
Ideological Causes
* Enlightenment ideas challenging the divine right of kings and advocating for individual rights and popular sovereignty
Phases of the French Revolution
1. Convocation of the Estates General and Formation of the National Assembly (1789)
* Privileged classes refuse to cede privileges * King summons the Estates General to approve new taxes * Third Estate demands deeper reforms * People of Paris storm the Bastille
2. The Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1791)
* National Constituent Assembly dominated by various political groups * Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen * Constitution proclaimed in 1791
3. The First French Republic and the War (1792-1795)
* European powers attack France in opposition to the revolution * King declared a traitor and executed (1793) * New Constitution (1793) with universal male suffrage * Period of”The Terro”
4. The Bourgeois Republic: The Directory (1795-1799)
* Revolution enters a moderate phase * New Constitution promulgated in 1795 * Executive power granted to a collegiate government called the Directory * Legislative power vested in two chambers: Council of the Five Hundred and Council of Elders * Napoleon Bonaparte achieves significant victories * Coup d’état in 1799 brings Napoleon to power as First Consul
Impact of the French Revolution
* Spread of revolutionary ideas throughout Europe * End of absolutism and establishment of constitutional governments * Rise of nationalism and liberalism * Codification of revolutionary achievements in the Civil Code (1804) * Napoleonic Wars and the creation of a French empire * Bourbon Restoration and the attempt to restore the Old Regime * Liberal revolutions of 1820 and 1830
Napoleon Bonaparte
From Consulate to Empire
* Reforms: Peace in France, Concordat with the Holy See, Civil Code * Popularity and establishment of a European empire * Control over Western Europe, except for the United Kingdom
The Fall of Napoleon
* Failure of the Great Army in Russia (1812) * Defeat in Spain (1815) * Escape from Elba and recapture of power * Exile to Saint Helena
The Bourbon Restoration
* Return to absolutism * Restoration of the old regime and redrawing of the political map of Europe * Congress of Vienna and the establishment of a system of diplomacy to resolve disputes
The Liberal Revolutions of 1820 to 1830
* Revolutions of 1820: Mediterranean and Russian areas, led by army officials and secret societies * Revolutions of 1830: Affected all of Europe, placing liberals in power in many states * Began in France with the ousting of Charles X