The French Revolution and its Aftermath
The Causes of the French Revolution
In 1789, France was in a deep economic and social crisis. Poor harvests since 1760 caused increased prices and widespread discontent. The French Revolution began with a revolt of the aristocracy, who refused to pay taxes.
Stages of the Revolution
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
This stage had the support of the conservative bourgeoisie, who sought to reach an agreement with the king and the privileged classes to abolish the Old Regime and impose liberalism.
The Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
Promoted by the radical bourgeoisie and popular sectors, this period aimed for a more profound transformation of society in a democratic and egalitarian sense.
The Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)
This marked a return to power of the conservative bourgeoisie, who enshrined the predominance of property rights.
The Napoleonic Empire
In 1804, Napoleon, empowered by military victories and his firm rule, crowned himself emperor. By 1811, the Napoleonic Empire was at its peak, stretching from Germany to Spain, with only Britain remaining outside French control. Napoleon imposed revolutionary ideas across his empire, including the abolition of feudal rights and privileges, and the establishment of freedom and legal equality.
Liberalism and Nationalism
Liberalism is a political system that prioritizes the individual within society. The State guarantees the rights and freedoms of all people. The citizens constitute the nation, which holds sovereignty.
Nationalism is a political ideology that upholds the right of peoples to self-determination and the defense of their sovereignty.
The French War and the Constitution of 1812
In 1812, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, aided by British troops, led to his defeat. The Treaty of Valençay in 1813 restored Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne and saw Napoleon withdraw his troops from Spain. The Spanish Constitution of 1812, nicknamed “La Pepa”, was adopted on March 19th. The cry “Viva La Pepa!” became a rallying cry for constitutionalism against absolutist rule.
Independence of the American Colonies
The causes for independence in the American colonies included:
- The dissemination of Enlightenment ideas and the principles of freedom and equality promoted by the French Revolution.
- The success of the revolt of the British colonies in North America (Independence of the USA in 1776).
- The discontent of the native bourgeoisie.
The End of the American Empire
- José de San Martín crossed the Andes, defeated the Spanish, and secured Chilean independence.
- Simón Bolívar defeated the Spanish and founded Gran Colombia (1821), which later divided into Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama.
- Agustín de Iturbide achieved Mexican independence in 1821, followed by Central America.
- Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish at Ayacucho, emancipating Peru and Bolivia.
The Transport Revolution
Initially used in mines, the railway saw innovations like steel rails and flanged wheels. The key innovation was Stephenson’s locomotive (1829), powered by a steam engine. Steam engines were later used in shipping, replacing sailing ships. This contributed to the market economy and improved domestic trade.
Industrial Capitalism
The Industrial Revolution gave rise to industrial capitalism, underpinned by liberal economic and political doctrines. Adam Smith established the principles of liberalism:
- Self-interest and the pursuit of maximum profit drive the economy.
- Pricing mechanisms adjust supply to demand.
- The state should not intervene in the economy.
Under these principles, industrial capitalism emerged as a system where the means of production are privately owned by a small group, with labor working for wages. Capitalism experiences cyclical economic crises.
The Second Phase of the Industrial Revolution
In the late nineteenth century, a new phase of industrialization began in Britain, Germany, the USA, and Japan. Electricity and oil replaced coal. The dynamo allowed for electricity production in power stations, while the alternator and transformer enabled the transfer of electrical current. Oil, first mined in the United States, fueled the invention of the internal combustion engine, crucial for automobiles in the twentieth century.
Marxism and Socialism
In the mid-nineteenth century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels denounced the exploitation of the working class and advocated for a workers’ revolution to overthrow capitalism. The abolition of private property would lead to the disappearance of social classes and the state, resulting in a communist society.
Anarchism
Anarchism’s basic principles include:
- The exaltation of individual freedom and social solidarity.
- Criticism of private property and defense of collective ownership.
- Rejection of authority, particularly the state.
Anarchists aimed to destroy the state and create a new collective and egalitarian society.