The Franco Regime: Politics, Ideology, and Economy in Spain
The Franco Regime in Spain (1939-1975)
Francisco Franco: The Caudillo of Spain
Francisco Franco, the leader of the Nationalist forces, headed the authoritarian regime that came to power after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Until his death in November 1975, Franco ruled Spain as “Caudillo by the grace of God.” He held absolute power, serving as:
- Generalissimo of the army
- Chief of State and head of the government
- The ultimate source of legitimate authority, with the power to appoint and dismiss ministers and other decision-makers
Even as he aged and became less actively involved in policy-making, Franco still had the final say on every major political decision. Having spent his life as a professional soldier, his conception of society was along military lines. Franco saw himself as the one destined to save Spain from the chaos and instability caused by parliamentary democracy and political parties, which he blamed for destroying the unity of Spain.
Political and Ideological Foundations of Francoism
Franco’s authority stemmed from his victory in the Civil War. The army provided security for his regime, while the Church and the National Movement gave it legitimacy. The National Movement was the only recognized political organization. Its membership included Falangists, conservatives, Catholics, members of the army, business groups, technocrats, and civil servants. Franco skillfully manipulated each of these “families” without allowing any group to challenge his authority. Membership in the National Movement was compulsory for civil servants and those holding political office.
The Francoist regime established policies highly favorable to the Catholic Church, restoring it to its previous status as the official religion. In addition to receiving government subsidies, the Church regained its dominant position in the education system. The Church was one of the main ideological sources of Francoism, with Catholic morality imposed on every sphere of life. A new Concordat was signed in 1953.
The military was another important pillar of the regime. Military figures made up a large part of Franco’s cabinets, and their presence was prominent in central and local administrations. Gains in regional autonomy were reversed, and Spain reverted to being a highly centralized state. The regime abolished regional governmental bodies and enacted measures against the use of Basque and Catalan languages. The regime defended the idea of a united state, “una grande, libre.”
Franco endeavored to remove all vestiges of parliamentary democracy. Political parties were outlawed, trade unions were eliminated, and freedoms of expression and association were limited. Criticism of the regime was considered treason. Compulsory affiliation to the single official vertical syndicate was enforced, and strikes were deemed treasonous. Strict censorship was imposed, and the regime had a network of newspapers and media outlets. Until 1966, all publications were subject to prior censorship.
Fundamental Laws of the Franco Regime
Franco never formulated a comprehensive constitutional system. Instead, seven fundamental laws decreed during his rule provided the regime with a semblance of constitutionalism.
- Labor Charter (1938): Set forth the social policy of the regime, stressing the mutual obligations of the State and its citizens. It promised adequate wages, paid vacations, and a limit on working hours but ensured labor’s compliance by labeling strikes as treason. It required Spanish workers to join vertical syndicates, in which owners and employees were supposed to cooperate for the good of the nation.
- Constituent Law of the Cortes (1942): Established the Cortes as an advisory body. Members were indirectly elected and had no right to initiate legislation or to vote against the government. They could only approve laws presented by the executive. Franco exercised executive authority and had the right to appoint and dismiss ministers.
- Charter of Rights (1945): Rights were more cosmetic than democratic and could be suspended. The chapter placed more emphasis on the duty of Spaniards to obey the laws than on their basic citizens’ rights.
- Organic Law of the State (1966): Established a separation between the functions of the president of the government and the head of state. It included other measures designed to modernize the system and eliminate vestiges of fascist terminology.
- Law of Referenda (1945): Stipulated that after 1947, a referendum would have to be called to alter any fundamental law. However, Franco retained the right to decree such laws.
- Law of Succession (1947): Proclaimed Spain a “Catholic, social, and representative monarchy.” Franco was appointed regent for life and had the right to name the next king.
- Law on the Principles of the National Movement (1958): Defined the institutions of the government and reaffirmed the nature of Spain as a traditional, Catholic monarchy.
Early Francoism and Autarky (1939-1959)
The State and Repression
The early years of the regime were marked by severe repression as Franco sought to impose absolute political control and institutionalize the National Victory. Society was divided between the “patriots” and the “hordes” that had supported the “Godless anti-Spain.” Many Spaniards went into exile, while those who stayed faced imprisonment. An atmosphere of fear prevailed, and the population was willing to accept any system that could restore peace and stability.
During the first phase of the regime, the military played a major role. Franco invalidated all the laws of the Second Republic that offended his political and ethical beliefs. He banned civil marriage, made divorce illegal, and made religious education compulsory. He returned most of the land nationalized under the Republic’s agrarian program to its original owners. The State destroyed trade unions and replaced them with Vertical Syndicates.
The Falange and World War II
From 1939 to 1945, the Falange’s fascist ideology and symbols played an important role in the New State. The Falange emblem was displayed at the entrance of every town, its anthem was sung on official occasions, and the blue fascist-style shirt became a common sight. The Blue Division was sent to help the Nazis on the Eastern Front. The Falange controlled the government’s propaganda machine, and their main power base lay in the controlled trade unions and syndical organization.
Weakened by the devastation of the Civil War, Spain could not afford to become involved in the European conflict. Franco declared Spain neutral in World War II but harbored sympathies for the Axis powers. Spain altered its policy of neutrality to support the Germans when their offensive seemed invincible, permitting German forces to be provisioned in Spanish ports. The German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 presented Franco with the chance to participate in the conflict without a formal declaration of war and to seek revenge for the Soviet Union’s aid to the Republicans (Blue Division).
When the war turned in favor of the Allies in 1943, Spain replaced its pro-Axis policy with a genuinely neutral stance.
International Ostracism and the Cold War
Franco began to downplay the fascist side of the regime after he saw that the Allies would win the war. He began to introduce elements of what he called “democracy”: the raised-arm salute was abandoned, and his public presence was reduced. The Falange retained its influence but to a lesser extent than before. By the 1950s, the Church had become the most powerful influence on the regime.
Spain was ostracized by the Allies at the end of the war. It was denied membership in the United Nations because of its assistance to the Axis powers. In 1946, a resolution adopted by the UN expressed severe censure of Franco’s regime. Spain was also excluded from the Marshall Plan. Only Argentina provided economic support.
However, United States policymakers began to recognize the strategic importance of the Iberian Peninsula during the Cold War. They realized that ostracism had failed and that the Franco regime was stronger than ever. The U.S. government took steps to normalize its political and economic relations with Spain. The period of isolation came to an end. In 1950, President Truman signed a bill that appropriated $62.5 million in aid to Spain. Diplomatic relations with Spain were restored in 1951.
The Concordat and the Pact of Madrid
The Concordat with the Vatican in 1953 provided international recognition for Franco’s government. The Pact of Madrid (1953) symbolized the Spanish regime’s rehabilitation. Spain allowed the U.S. to establish military bases in Spain for ten years. In 1955, Spain was admitted to the United Nations. President Eisenhower visited Franco in Spain in 1959, which boosted Spain’s international image.
Autarky and Economic Liberalization
The influence of the Falange was also evident in the economic field. In 1939, the regime started a program of reconstruction based on self-sufficiency (autarky) and state interventionism. The State controlled wages, prices, and agricultural yields. The objective was to achieve self-sufficiency and eliminate imports. The program benefited big landowners and industrialists. However, because traditional structures and technologies were not changed, the program failed, and production fell drastically. Starvation wages were made worse by Spain’s high inflation. By the end of the decade, Spain had the lowest economic development in Europe.
Franco’s collaboration with the Axis powers during World War II deprived Spain of the benefits of the Marshall Plan. Low agricultural productivity led to food rationing. Spain’s economy was in ruins. However, the U.S. needed Spain’s strategic location in its fight against the Soviet Union. As a result, Spain’s economy began to improve. In the 1950s, economic liberalization increased industrial production. The Falange resisted the move towards capitalism.
Later Francoism and the Transition to Democracy (1959-1975)
This period will be covered in a separate section.