The Franco Regime: A History of Spain (1939-1975)

Posted on Oct 10, 2024 in History

1. Origin and Nature of the Franco Regime

The Franco regime, born during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), was a political and social system with a management structure parallel to the Republican government. Supported by the Nationalist Movement, the rebels were solely commanded by Francisco Franco until his death in 1975. Over time, a set of laws, including the Law of Principles of the Movement, shaped the regime’s legal framework.

The regime’s ideology aligned with conservative and authoritarian right-wing European ideologies of the time. Its main features included:

  • Rejection of modern bourgeois society and nostalgia for Spain’s past triumphs.
  • Aversion to liberal political institutions and parliamentary democracy, which were identified with Freemasonry or Judeo-Masonry.
  • Harsh repression of Marxism, communism, and the entire labor movement.
  • Exaggerated nationalism combined with xenophobia and conservative Catholicism.

Over time, the close identification between the regime and Catholicism led to its rejection by many progressive sectors of the Catholic Church.

2.1 The Construction of the Regime (1939-1951)

The early Francoist period can be divided into two phases: before and after the protests of 1951.

The Prevalence of Serrano Suñer: Support for Fascism

Between 1938 and 1942, the most influential figure in the regime was Ramón Serrano Suñer, Minister of the Interior in Franco’s first government. Suñer aimed to establish a fascist or national-syndicalist state. During this time, the government comprised ministers from various factions, with Falangist ministers dominating the Interior and Military ministries. Catholics, including members of the National Catholic Propaganda Association and later Opus Dei, also participated.

During World War II, the regime adopted a non-belligerent stance, which thinly veiled support for Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. From 1942 onward, Suñer’s influence waned, and Franco adopted a more neutral international stance.

The Rise of Catholics: International Isolation

From 1945, the political influence of Catholics within Franco’s government increased. Alberto Martín Artajo, the Foreign Affairs Minister, sought to improve relations with the victorious Allies and international opinion. A period of National-Catholicism began, characterized by the marginalization of Falangists. Several fundamental laws were enacted during this time:

  • Constitutive Act of the Parliament (1942): Created a consultative assembly composed of corporate delegates, establishing a system called “organic democracy.”
  • Jurisdiction of the Spanish (1945): Defined fundamental rights and duties granted by the dictator.
  • National Referendum Act (1945): Introduced the possibility of popular consultation through plebiscites or referendums.
  • Law of Succession to the Head of State (1947): Declared Spain a kingdom and promised the restoration of the monarchy after Franco’s death or incapacitation.

After 1945, Franco’s Spain faced international ostracism and condemnation by the United Nations. The country experienced diplomatic and economic isolation. The early Franco regime was characterized by rigid state intervention and a policy of autarky (economic self-sufficiency). The resulting shortages of essential goods led to protests and strikes, culminating in significant labor unrest in 1951.

2.2 The Consolidation of the Regime (1951-1959)

Gradually, aspects of the autarkic and isolationist policies were abandoned. This process culminated in the implementation of the Stabilization Plan in 1959 and the visit of U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower to Spain in the same year.

  • Growing Catholic Influence: Artajo remained in the government, and Joaquín Ruiz-Giménez was appointed Minister of Education.
  • Political Shifts: In 1957, Franco initiated another change in direction, bringing in Catholic ministers associated with Opus Dei, known as “technocrats.” This team, led by Mariano Navarro Rubio, designed the Stabilization Plan.
  • Opening to the Outside World: After 1950, the regime’s diplomatic relations improved. In 1953, Spain signed the Pacts of Madrid with the United States, allowing the construction of U.S. military bases in Spain. In return, Franco gained economic and military support for his regime. Spain joined the UN in 1955. In 1953, the Holy See and Spain signed a concordat that solidified Spain’s status as a confessional Catholic state.

2.3 The Late Franco Era and Development (1959-1973)

The late Franco era, also known as the “Development” period, can be divided into two stages separated by 1973. This period witnessed rapid economic growth and increased political opposition.

Political Action

The regime sought to modernize and ensure its continuity. The influence of technocrats grew. A new Organic Law of the State (1967) was approved in a referendum, outlining the future of Spain after Franco’s death. Manuel Fraga Iribarne promoted the Press and Printing Law (1966), and in 1969, Juan Carlos de Borbón was designated as Franco’s successor.

Problems of the Franco Regime

From 1967, the regime intensified its repression. Civilians and military officials, wary of the post-Franco future, formed a faction known as the “bunker,” representing the last bastion of the regime’s resistance. Divisions within the regime became evident with the Matesa scandal (1969) and the appointment of Luis Carrero Blanco as Vice President. The regime’s liberalization efforts stalled after this point.

Two events in 1973 abruptly halted the regime’s evolution:

  • The energy crisis: This had a significant impact on the Spanish economy.
  • The assassination of Carrero Blanco by ETA: This destabilized the regime and further intensified the political climate.

2.4 The Agony of the Regime (1973-1975)

After Carrero Blanco’s assassination, Carlos Arias Navarro was appointed Prime Minister. Following his appointment, technocrats were removed from power. The new government struggled to reconcile its theoretically reformist intentions with the repressive practices of the regime.

In November 1975, Franco died, leaving behind a weakened and unstable state.

The Problem of Spanish Sahara

In 1975, Spain was the last remaining dictatorship in Western Europe. King Hassan II of Morocco announced the Green March, encouraging thousands of Moroccan civilians to invade the Spanish Sahara. The Franco government shamefully abandoned the colony, ceding it to Morocco and Mauritania.

3. The Opposition During the Franco Regime

3.1 The Opposition During the Early Franco Era

Resistance to the Franco government was initially weak and fragmented. Many opposition members were in exile, while others engaged in armed guerrilla warfare within Spain.

  • Republicans in Exile: The exiled Republicans were disunited, with their institutions weakening over time. They consistently isolated the communists. The opposition’s division and weakness prevented them from capitalizing on the international situation that was unfavorable to Franco between 1944 and 1947.
  • The Bourbons: After the death of Alfonso XIII, his son Juan, Count of Barcelona, became the heir to the throne. Following the enactment of the Law of Succession, Juan resigned his claim in favor of his son Juan Carlos, who was educated in Spain under the principles of the Movement.
  • The Maquis: Guerrilla groups, primarily communists and anarchists, operated within Spain.

3.2 The Opposition in the 1950s

In the 1950s, a slow process of rebuilding a genuine opposition began within Spain. This opposition manifested through spontaneous and uncoordinated social protests.

  • Many opposition figures were integrated into the system, some having not even experienced the Civil War. Others were part of the regime’s internal opposition.
  • The main centers of opposition shifted from exile to within Spain, particularly in:
    • The University: Conflicts arose between the SEU (the regime’s student union) and students who rejected it, leading to purges.
    • Workers’ Strikes: Strikes, sometimes accompanied by popular boycotts, were called. The strikes of 1951 were particularly significant. During 1956-1958, strikes occurred in the Basque Country, Madrid, and Barcelona in response to inflation. Spontaneous workers’ committees began to emerge.

3.3 The Great Wave: Radicalization and Terrorism

Labor Protest

Labor protests began to be channeled through trade unions recognized by the regime. The most important was the Workers’ Commissions (CCOO), which emerged between 1962 and 1966. From 1967 onward, labor strikes became more frequent. These factors led CCOO to align with the PCE, the strongest workers’ party and organized opposition group. Other significant unions included the Unión Sindical Obrera (USO) and the Euskal Sindikatua-Solidaridad de Trabajadores Vascos (ELA-STV).

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